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INTEODUCTION  TO  THE  STUDY 


ENGLISH    i  K  A  M  M  A  K. 


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AOIHOft   or   ^^AMALTSIS,"  *<riBfT   X- >  B  8  0  H  b  >.qqq^  f^^f^ 


PHILADELPHIA: 

cow|4||Hir a|t  &  CO. 

1868. 


t^/ney  ty^anc^tc^^ 

University  of  California  < 

►  Berkeley 

Gxitoj 

James    W.    Proctor 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1866,  by 
SAMUEL    S.    GREENE, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for 
the  District  of  Rhodo  Island. 


^TXaiOTTPXD  BT  » 


% 


PEEFACE. 


This  Introduction  to  the  study  of  English  Grammar  is  based 
upon  the  same  general  plan  as  the  "Elements  op  English 
Grammar/'  The  Introductory  and  Oral  Exercises  are  all 
brought  together  in  Part  I.  They  embrace  a  series  of  lessons 
commencing  with  elementary  principles  entirely  familiar  to  the 
merest  child.  By  a  gradual  succession  of  exercises,  which 
require  a  constant  use  of  well-known  and  familiar  objects,  the 
learner,  almost  imperceptibly,  masters  the  different  parts  of 
speech.  And  not  only  so,  he  learns  their  principal  properties, 
and  various  uses  in  construction.  The  inductive  method  pre- 
vails throughout  the  whole  of  this  part;  and  such  is  the  nature 
and  arrangement  of  the  Lessons,  that  a  child  cannot  faithfully 
perform  the  exercises  without  being  thoroughly  prepared  to 
enter  upon  the  more  formal  study  of  Grammar. 

In  Part  II.,  the  principles  of  English  Grammar  are  stated  in 
the  form  of  definitions  and  rules,  to  be  committed  to  memory, 
and  applied  in  the  exercises.  In  preparing  this  abridgement 
of  the  larger  work,  it  has  been  thought  best  to  exclude  the 
critical  Remarks  and  Notes,  rather  than  the  practical  Exercises. 
Hence  many  discussions  important  to  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  Grammar  are  here  omitted,  and  should  be  supplied,  when- 
ever needed,  from  the  Elements.  The  peculiarities  of  the  work 
to  which  the  author  would  call  special  attention  are  these :  — 

1.  It  begins  with  what  the  child  already  knowSf  and  advances 
step  by  step,  deriving  new  facts  and  new  relations,  from  what 
is  already  established  and  familiar.  j 

mi)  ' 


IV  PREFACE. 


2.  The  order  of  development  is  natural  and  easy.  Qrammar 
is  the  analysis  of  speech ;  and  when  we  speak,  we  utter  some- 
thing of  some  object.  The  mind  is  occupied  first  with  the  object 
itself;  then  with  its  qualities,  actionSy  or  relations^ — and  hence, 
in  speaking,  we  use  nouns ,  or  object-words,  adjectives,  or  quality^ 
words,  verbs,  or  action-words,  and  so  of  other  classes  of  words. 

3.  The  relation  between  expressions  and  the  ideas  for  which 
they  stand  is  constantly  illustrated  by  appeals  to  familiar  things, 
and  to  the  child's  own  habits  of  speaking. 

4.  It  requires  a  perpetual  use  of  the  pen  or  pencil,  the  only 
true  way  to  learn  to  write  the  English  language  correctly. 

5.  It  requires  at  the  outset,  a  strict  attention  to  the  rules 
of  criticism. 

6.  It  teaches  a  child  to  analyze  his  own  thoughts,  and  to 
comprehend  and  appreciate  the  expressions  he  employs  in 
uttering  them.  It  presents  the  sentence,  not  only  in  its  parts, 
consisting  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  but  as  a  whole,  —  a 
complete  structure  designed  to  convey  a  thought  to  the  minds 
of  others. 

The  Exercises  for  practice,  in  some  parts,  may  not  be  found 
sufficient  for  the  beginner.  The  Teacher  will  readily  supply 
any  deficiency  of  this  kind.  Indeed,  it  will  often  be  best  in 
teaching,  to  multiply  examples  given  spontaneously  by  the 
teacher,  or,  which  is  far  better,  drawn  from  the  members  of  the 
class.  For  a  more  extended  discussion  of  the  various  parts, 
reference  should  be  had  to  the  author's  "Elements,"  or  "Analy- 
sis of  Sentences.'' 

8.  S.  GREENE. 

Providence,  September,  1856. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

LBSSON  ^^^^ 

I.    Introductory. — Speaking 7 

II.    Objects — Nouns 8 

III.  Criticism ^ 

IV.  Sentence — Subject  and  Predicate 11 

V.     The  uses  of  the  Noun  in  the  sentence 13 

VI.     Qualities — Adjectives 16 

VII.     The  Adjective  in  the  Predicate 19 

VIII.    The  Adjective  used  to  show  what  kind 20 

IX.     Actions — Verbs — Participles  22 

X.     Uses  of  the  Verb  and  Participle 24 

XI.     Adverb— Its  Uses 26 

XII.     Modifying  or  Limiting — Analysis 27 

XIII.  Relations — Propositions  30 

XIV.  Connections — Conjunctions  and  Interjections 82 

XV.     Common  and  Proper  Nouns  34 

XVI.     Number,  Singular  and  Plural 35 

XVII.     Person,  First,  Second,  Third  36 

XVIII.     Gender,  Masculine,  Feminine,  Neuter 40 

XIX.     Case,  Nominative,  Possessive,  Objective 42 

XX.    Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs 44 

XXI.    Mode  47 

XXII.    Tense 49 

XXIII.     Regular  and  Irregular  Verbs 63 

XXIV.    Agreement  of  the  Verb  with  the  Subject 54 

XXV.    Comparison  of  Adjectives  .,  56 

PART  II. 

OETHOGRAPHY. 

XXVI.    Definitions 60 

XXVII.     Elementary  Sounds 60 

XXVIII.     Letters 62 

XXIX.     Combination  of  Letters  ,. :......  63 

XXX.    Syllables  and  Words  ..^.. 64 

— 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

LE880M  PAGB 

XXXI.     Definitions— Parts  of  Speech 6« 

XXXII.     Nouns 68 

XXXIII.  Person 70 

XXXIV.  Number 71 

XXXV.     Gender  ^ ...  74 

XXXVI.     Case  75 

XXXVII.    Adjectives 78 

XXXVIII.     Comparison  of  Adjectives .......m. 80 

XXXIX.     Pronouns  83 

XL.     Relative  and  Interrogative  Pronoans 87 

XLL     Classes  of  Verbs  90 

XLII.    Voice ^ 92 

XLIIL    Mode 94 

XLI V.     Tense 99 

XLV.     Conjugation  103 

XLVI.     Irregular  Verbs  117 

XLVIL     Adverbs 124 

XLVIII.     Prepositions 126 

XLIX.     Conjunctions 128 

L.     Interjections  130 

SYNTAX. 

LI.     Sentences  131 

LII.     Propositions ^ 132 

LIII.     Classes  of  Propositions  ^, 135 

LIV.     Elements  of  Sentences ^ 137 

LV.     Elements  continued 140 

LVI.     Definitions  and  Rules 143 

LVII.     Elements  of  the  first  class— Words 146 

LVIIL     Construction  of  the  Predicate 148 

LIX.     Construction  of  the  Adjective  Element  152 

LX.     The  Objective  Element 158 

LXI.     Construction  of  the  Adverbial  Element  161 

LXII.     Construction  and  use  of  Connectives  164 

LXIII.     Elements  of  the  second  class — Phrases  166 

LXrV.     Construction  of  Subordinate  Connectives   170 

LXV.    Exercises  173 

LXVL     Infinitive  and  Participle 175 

*  y                 PROSODY. 

LX^^I.    Verse,  Feet,  Scanning 178 

LXvllL    Punctuation  183 


GKEENE^S    INTRODUCTION. 

PART  I. 

LESSON  I. 

The  sun  is  shining. 

What  have  I  just  said  ?  Ans. — That  the  sun  is 
shining. 

Of  what  brilliant  object  have  I  spoken  ?  Ans, — 
The  sun. 

What  have  I  said  of  it  ?  Ans. — That  it  is  shining. 

The  moon  is  bright. 
Of  what  object  have  I  spoken  now? 
What  have  I  said  of  it? 

The  lamb  skips. 
Of  what  object  have  I  spoken  here  ? 
What  have  I  said  of  it  ? 

James  is  a  good  boy. 
Of  what  object  have  I  spoken  in  this  elJcampIe? 
What  have  I  said  of  him  ?     Then  —  ' 

When  we  speaJcj  we  say  something  of  ILme  opect. 


I  elJcai 


8  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


Of  what  objects  do  we  speak  in  these  examples  ? 

The  star  is  twinkling. 
The  duck  is  swimming. 
The  tree  bends. 
The  dog  is  barking. 

Point  to  any  five  objects  in  this  room.     Say  some- 
thing of  each. 


LESSON  II. 


Note. — The  Teacher  is  now  supposed  to  stand  at  the  black- 
board, and  to  hold  up  before  the  class  any  convenient  object, 
as,  a  pen,  asking,  as  in  the  Lesson,  "What  object  is  this?'' 
Every  pupil  should  answer. 

What  object  is  this  ?     Ans, — A  pen. 

What  word  shall  I  write  for  it  ?  Arts. — The  word 
pen. 

Now,  where  is  the  word  pen  f     Point  to  it. 

Where  is  the  pen  itself,  or  the  object  pen  ?    Point. 

Speak  the  word  pen.  Can  you  speak  the  object 
pen? 

Can  you  write  the  word  pen  ? 

Can  you  write  the  object  pen  f 

Now,  tell  which  is  the  object^  and  which  is  the  mere 
object-word^  or  name  of  the  object. 

The  object-word^  or  name  of  the  object^  is  called  a 
Noun. 

What  is  the  word  pen  the  name  of?  Ans. — An 
object. 

What  is  the  word  desk  the  name  of? 

What  do  you  call  the  words  pen  and  desk  ?    Why  ? 


LESSON    THIRD.  9 


What  do  you  call  the  word  knife  ? 
What  do  you  call  the  knife  itself  f 
Which  can  you  speak  ?     With  which  can  you  cut  ? 

The  object  is  one  thing,  and  its  name  another. 

Which  is  a  noun  ?     Which  is  not  ? 

The  pen,  the  desk,  and  the  knife,  are  objects ;  what 
shall  we  call  this  book  ?  This  pencil  ?  This  bell  ? 
Any  of  these  scholars,  or  any  of  these  things  in  this 
room  ?  The  plants  in  the  garden  ?  The  trees  in  the 
forest  ?  The  animals  on  the  land  ?  The  fishes  in  the 
sea? 

What  are  their  namest     Then — 

The  names  of  objects  are  nouns. 

What  do  you  call  each  of  these  words :  — 
Lion.  Tulip.  Oak. 

Tiger.  Lilac.  Ash. 

Fox.  Pink.  Pine. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Write,  in  columns,  the 
names  of  any  ten  objects  in  this  room. 


LESSON  III. 

Note. — The  pupils  are  supposed  to  have  before  tbjem  their 
slates,  containing  the  exercise  required  in  Lesson  11. 

How  many  of  you  have  written  objects   on   your 
slates  ? 

How  many  have  written  object-words  ? 
What  are  these  words  ?     Why  ? 
What  are  the  things  themselves  ? 
How  many  have  written  the  word  desk  f 


10  qeeene's  introduction. 


How  many  have  begun  it  with  a  capital  letter,  thus : 
Desk? 

How  many  with  a  small  letter,  thus  :  desk? 

How  many  have  begun  any  other  words  with  small 
letters? 

Any  word  written  by  itself  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 

Mark  every  error  in  the  use  of  capitals,  thus :  ( X  ). 
How  many  have  written  the  word  knife  ? 
How  many  have  spelled  it  as  on  this  slate,  nife? 
Is  that  right  ?     How  should  it  be  ? 

Every  word  should  be  spelled  correctly, 

Mark  every  error  in  spelling. 

How  many  have  placed  a  period  (.)  at  the  end  of 
each  word  ?     How  many  have  not  ? 

A  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  every  word 
written  by  itself 

Mark  each  omission  of  the  period. 

Note.  —  The  Teacher  will  do  well  at  first  to  examine  each 
slate  separately,  often  placing  an  error  upon  the  board  for  the 
benefit  of  the  whole  class.  Every  error,  whether  in  the  direc- 
tion, the  size,  the  formation,  or  the  proportion  of  the  letters,  in 
the  space  between  the  words,  or  in  the  use  of  punctuation 
marks,  from  this  Lesson  onwards,  should  be  noted  and  cor- 
rect-ed.  The  class  will  soon  render  themselves  and  the  Teacher 
much  aid,  by  exchanging  slates,  and  correcting  each  other'» 
work. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  You  may  now  re-write 
all  these  examples,  correct  all  the  errors,  and  preserve 


LESSON    FOURTH.  11 


the  work  for  the  next  Lesson.  You  may  also  write 
the  names  of  any  ten  objects  seen  on  the  way  to 
school. 


LESSON  IV. 

How  many  have  written  the  examples  given  out  in 
the  last  Lesson  ?  Exchange  slates,  and  see  if  every 
example  is  written  correctly.  Examine  Lesson  L,  and 
see  if  anything  is  said  of  the  objects  which  you  have 
named  ? 

A  noun  alone  can  name  an  object,  but  can  never 
my  or  affirm  anything. 

The  kite  is  flying. 
The  road  is  rough. 
The  wind  blows 

Is  anything  said  of  the  objects  named  in  these 
examples  ? 

Name  the  objects  of  which  something  is  said,  thus : 
What  is  flying  ?  What  is  rough  ?  What  blows  ? 
Tell  what  is  said  or  affirmed  of  each,  thus :  What  is 
said  of  the  kite  ?     Of  the  road  ?     Of  the  winds  ? 

When  anything  is  said  or  affirmed  of  an  object^  the 
words  form  a  sentence. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  expressions  are  sen- 
tences : — 

In  the  spring. 
Birds  fly. 
Industrious  men. 
The  bees  are  buzzing. 
The  earth  is  a  globe. 
Paul  the  Apostle. 
The  water  is  warm. 


12  Greene's  introduction. 


Is  anything  said  or  affirmed  of  spring  ?    Of  hivla  ? 
Of  men  f     Of  the  hees  ?     Of  the  earth  f     Of  Paid  f 
Of  water  f     Which  are  sentences  ? 
Say  something  of  these  objects  : — 
The  boys  are  playing. 
The  dogs -. 


The  fishes  - 
The  8un  — 
The  ice  — 


Tell  what  is  spoken  of  in  each.  Tell  what  is  said. 
Are  they  sentences  ?     Why  ? 

In  the  following  examples,  insert  something  to  show 
what  is  spoken  of: — 

The is  running. 

The is  swimming. 

The are  sweet. 

The is  falling. 

What  is  running  ?  What  is  swimming  ?  What  are 
sweet  ?  What  is  falling  ?  Are  these  examples  sen- 
tences ?     Why  ?     In  every  sentence  — 

That  of  which  something  is  said,  or  affirmed^  is  called 
the  subject. 

That  which  is  said  or  affirmed^  is  called  the  predi- 
cate. 

Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  in  these  examples  : — 

The  fire  burns 
Trees  grow 
Winter  is  coming. 
The  flowers  fade 
The  boy  is  playing. 

To   find   the   subject,    ask,   Wha.t   burns?     What 


LESSON    FIFTH.  13 

grows  ?  What  is  coming  ?  What  fades  ?  Who  is 
playing  ?  What  kind  of  words  are  they  ?  To  find 
the  predicate,  ask,  What  is  said  of  the  fire  ?  Of 
trees  ?     Of  winter  ?     Of  the  flowers?     Of  the  boy  ? 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Fill  these  blank  places 
with  subjects : — 

is  reaping.  is  studying. 

is  walking.  barks. 

roars.  is  kind. 

Fill  these  with  predicates : — 

The  stars .  The  snow . 


The  peaches .  The  clouds  - 

The  bells .  The  lawyer  - 


Form  four  short  sentences,  taking  for  subjects  any 
objects  in  this  room.  Be  careful  to  begin  each  with 
a  capital,  and  to  place  a  period  at  the  end  of  each. 


LESSON  V. 

You  may  read  your  examples  from  the  slates. 

With  what  kind  of  letters  do  you  begin  each  ex- 
ample ?  Have  you  placed  a  period  at  the  end  of  each  ? 
Are  your  examples  sentences  ?     Why  ? 

Point  out  the  subjects  and  predicates  in  each. 

How  do  you  find  the  subject  ?    How  the  predicate  ? 

What  kind  of  a  word  is  the  subject  in  each  ?   Then — 

A  noun  may  stand  for  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 

Point  out  the  subjects  in  the  following  examples : — 

Victoria  is  a  queen. 
The  globe  is  a  ball. 
The  oak  is  a  tree. 
The  lily  is  a  plant. 

2  ^ 


14  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


What  kind  of  words  are  these  subjects  ?  What  is 
the  predicate  in  each  ?  that  is,  What  is  said  of  each  ? 
What  kind  of  words  are  queen,  ball,  tree,  plant  f 
Does  queen  mean  the  same  person  as  Victoria,  or  does 
it  mean  a  different  person?  Does  globe  mean  the 
same  object  as  ballf  Does  tree  mean  the  same  as 
oak  f  Does  plant  mean  the  same  as  lily  f  How  many 
nouns  in  each  sentence  ?  Which  is  the  subject  ?  Which 
is  in  the  predicate  ? 

A  noun  with  "  is'*  may  stand  as  the  predicate  of 
a  seritence. 

Put  in  a  noun  after  "  is*'  to  form  a  predicate  in  the 
following : — 

The  earth  is  a . 


This  object  is  a 

This  thing  is  a 

This  boy  is  a  good  ■ 


What  is  said  of  the  earth  ?  Of  this  object  ?  Of 
this  thing  ?  Of  this  boy  ?  What  kind  of  words  have 
you  added  ?  Which  is  the  subject  noun  ?  Which  is 
the  predicate  noun  ?    Do  they  mean  the  same  object  J 

Venus,  a  planet. 
Scott,  the  commander. 
James,  the  treasurer. 
John,  the  carpenter. 

What  Venus  is  meant  ?  What  Scott  ?  What  James  ? 
Which  John  ?  Is  anything  said  or  affirmed  of  Venus  ? 
Of  Scott  ?  Of  James  ?  Of  John  ?  Are  the  exam- 
ples sentences  ?  How  many  nouns  in  each  ?  Do  they 
mean  the  same  person  or  thing  ?     Then — 


LESSON    FIFTH.  16 

A  noun  tvithout  "  is''  may  stand  after  another 
noun  which  means  the  same  person  or  thing ^  to  show 
which  one  or  what  one  is  meant;  but  the  words  do 
not  form  a  sentence. 

Put  "  is''  after  Venus,  Scott,  James,  and  John  in 
the  examples  above,  and  state  whether  anything  is 
said  of  each  noun  ?     Then — 

The  word  "  is"  helps  us  to  say  or  affirm  something 
of  the  subject.  It  is  called  the  verb,  the  important 
word,  because  nothing  can  be  said  or  affirmed  without 
a  verb. 

Take  away  "is"  from  the  examples  in  this  Lesson. 
Is  anything  said  ? 

What  word  must  fill  the  blanks,  in  order  that  some- 
tning  may  be  said  in  these  examples  ? 

Horace  —  a  scholar. 
Ice  —  cold. 
The  girl  —  sewing. 
The  orange  —  sweet. 

What  do  you  call  the  word  ?  In  the  last  example, 
if  there  were  more  than  one  orange,  what  word  then 
would  fill  the  blank?     J^tis.— "Are."    Then— 

When  the  subject  means  more  than  one  object,  the 
verb  should  be  ^' are,*'  and  not  ''is.'' 

Correct  these  examples,  and  tell  why  you  change 
the  verb : — 

Some  boys  is  playing. 
The  lessons  is  easy. 
His  sisters  is  sick. 
Your  whip  are  broken. 


16  Greene's  introduction.  [| 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Fill  each  of  the  follow- 
ing blanks  with  a  noun  —  first,  so  as  to  show  what  is 
said  ;  and,  second,  so  as  to  distinguish  what  one  : — 

Henry  the  carpenter. 
Henry  is  the  carpenter. 
Napoleon  the 


Napoleon  is  the  - 
Mr.  Lane  the  — 
Mr.  Lane  is  the  • 

The  pine  a 

The  pine  is  a  — 


Fill  the  following  blanks  with  nouns.  Tell  which 
nouns  show  what  object  is  spoken  of,  —  which  with 
"is'*  show  what  is  said, — and  which  distinguish  what 
one  is  meant : — 


George  the . 

Mr.  Dickinson  is  a . 

My  dog is  a . 

Your  brother is  a  good . 

His  sister is  a . 

Their is  a . 

Put  these  nouns  into  sentences  of  your  own :  Straw- 
berries, peaches,  sheep,  doves,  boys. 


LESSON  VI. 

Read  your  examples  from  the  slate. 

How  many  sentences  are  there  ? 

What  word  have  you  used  to  distinguish  which 
*  George'  is  meant  ?  Explain  the  examples  as  directed 
in  the  last  Lesson. 

Now,  what  is  this  ?     Ans. — An  orange. 


LESSON    SIXTH.  17 


nl 


How  does  it  taste  ?     Ans. — Sweet. 

What  word  shall  I  write  to  express  the  quality 
sweet?     Ans, — The  word  sweet. 

Now,  where  is  the  word  sweet  ? 

Where  do  you  find  the  quality  itself  If 

Which  can  you  speak  ? 

Which  can  you  taste  ? 

Which  can  you  write  ? 

Which  is  the  quality  itself,  and  which  is  the  quality- 
word,  or  name  of  the  quality  ? 

The  quality-word,  or  name  of  the  quality,  is  called 
an  Adjective. 

What,  then,  is  the  word  sweet  called  ? 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  orange  ?     Ans, — Round. 

What  do  you  call  the  word  round? 

What  do  you  call  the  shape  itself?  Ans. — A 
quality. 

Which  can  you  speak,  the  quality  or  the  quality- 
word  ? 

Which  can  you  feel  ? 

What  is  the  color  of  the  orange  ? 

Which  is  the  quality  ? 

Which  IS  the  adjective  ? 

What  other  qualities  has  the  orange  ?  What  kind 
of  orange  is  it  ?  Is  it  ripe,  or  unripe  ?  Large  or 
small  ?     Hard  or  soft  ? 

What  do  you  call  these  quality-words? 

What  do  they  show  ?  Ans. — The  qualities  of  the 
orange,  or,  what  kind  of  orange  it  is. 

What  kind  of  word  is  orange  ? 

Is^  peach  an  object-word  or  a  quality-word  ? 


18  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


Is  it  a  noun  or  an  adjective? 

Tell  whether  each  one  of  the  following  words  is  a 
noun  or  an  adjective. 

Cherry.  Ripe.  Hard. 

Red.  Soft.  Board. 

Smooth.  Apple.  Rough. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Fill  the  following  blanks 
with  adjectives :  — 

The tiger  sprang  upon  the  horse. 

fields, lakes,  and mountains  add  a  charm  to 

the  landscape. 

The eagle  spread  his  wings. 

I  have  lost  a dollar. 

Write,  in  columns,  adjectives  for  all  the  qualities 
you  can  think  of  in  an  apple,  a  rose,  a  sponge. 

Write  also,  in  columns,  the  names  of  objects  which 
have  these  qualities :  — 

Bright.  Smooth.  Soft. 

Sour.  Beautiful.  Blue. 

Note.  —  The  Teacher  will  do  well  to  show  the  class  how  to 
discover  the  qualities  of  objects.  Thus :  he  can  take  any 
object,  and  tell  the  children  to  look  at  it,  and  see  wheiiier  it  is 
long  or  short,  thick  or  thin,  old  or  new,  large  or  small,  round 
or  square,  &c.,  &c.  lie  can  let  themy^^Z  it,  and  thus  determine 
whether  it  is  rough  or  smooth,  hot  or  cold,  hard  or  soft,  &c. 
lie  can  ask,  "How  does  it  smell P*  "How  does  it  tasteV^ 
"  Can  you  liear  it?"  "  What  kind  of  sound  does  it  produce?" 
In  this  way  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  adjectives  will  be 
suggested. 


LESSON    SEVENTH.  19 


LESSON  VII. 


How  mhiij  of  you  have  written  qualities  ? 

How  many  have  written  quality-words  ? 

In  these  examples  is  anything  said  or  affirmed  ? 

An  adjective  alone  can  never  say  or  affirm  anything 
of  an  object. 

How  many  have  written  objects  ? 

How  many  have  written  nouns  ? 

What  nouns  have  you  for  objects  containing  the 
quality  bright  ?  The  quality  smooth  ?  The  quality 
soft?  The  quality  sour?  The  quality  beautiful? 
The  quality  blue  ?     Is  anything  said  of  each  ? 

What  quality  belongs  to  the  object  sugar?  Ans. — 
The  quality  sweet. 

Then,  what  object-word  should  the  quality-word 
siveet  belong  to?  Ans. — The  object-word  or  noun 
sugar.     Then  — 

Adjectives  are  joined  or  added  to  nouns. 

How  can  we  join  the  adjective  sweet  to  the  noun 
sugar,  so  as  to  show  what  is  said  or  affirmed  of  the 
sugar  ? 

Ans, — Thus :  "  Sugar  is  sweet." 

Is  this  a  sentence  ?     Why  ? 

What  is  the  subject  ?  What  kind  of  word  is  it  —  a 
noun  or  an  adjective? 

What  is  the  predicate — that  is,  what  shows  what  is 
said  of  the  sugar  ? 

What  kind  of  word  is  ^is*  ? 


GREENE    S    INTRODUCTION. 


What  kind  of  word  is  sweet  f     Then  — 

An  adjective  joined  to  a  noun  with  '  is  *  or  *  are ' 
may  stand  as  the  predicate  of  a  sentence. 

Point  out  the  predicates  in  the  following  examples : 

The  8un  is  bright.  Snow  is  white. 

The  knife  is  sharp.  Grapes  are  delicious. 

Are  these  examples  sentences  ?     Why  ? 
Take  away  the  verb,  and  are  they  sentences  ?    (See 
Lesson  V.) 

What  is  the  subject  in  each  sentence  ? 

Point  out  the  nouns.     Point  out  the  adjectives. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Write  sentences  con- 
taining the  following  adjectives  :  —  Glassy,  yellow, 
thin,  dark,  shrill,  mellow,  hard,  brittle. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  examples,  and  state 
which  of  the  words  inserted  are  nouns,  and  which  are 
adjectives : — 

The  violet  is . 

Charles  is  a . 


The  butterfly  is  ■ 
The  clouds  are  - 
The  lizard  is  a  - 


LESSON  VIII. 

NoTB. — At  each  new  Lesson,  the  last  should  be  reviewed, 
and  the  slate  exercise  carefully  examined. 

Name  the  nouns  in  these  examples : — 
Tall  pines.  Ripe  berries. 

Brave  men.  Golden  clouds. 


LESSON    EIGHTH.  21 

Are  these  examples  sentences  ?     Why  not  ? 

What  kind  of  pines  are  mentioned  ?  Of  men  ?  Of 
berries  ?  Of  clouds  ?  To  what  are  tall,  brave,  ripe, 
and  golden  added?  What  do  they  show?  What 
kind  of  words  are  they  ?     Then  — 

An  adjective  may  he  added  to  a  noun  to  show  what 
kind,  but  the  words  do  not  form  a  sentence. 

Name  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences  : — 

Ripe  berries  are  sweet. 
Those  boys  are  sick. 
Young  children  are  playful. 
The  third  house  is  white. 

Name  the  adjectives.  Which  adjectives  show  what 
is  said  ?  Which  show  what  kind  ?  Do  those  and  third 
show  what  tind  ?  What  do  they  show  ?  Are  they 
quality-words  ? 

Words  which  do  not  express  quality^  if  added  to 
nouns,  are  adjectives. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Insert  adjectives  to  fill 
the  following  blanks,  thus : — 

Smooth  glass. 

The  glass  is  smooth, 

clouds. 


The  clouds  are  ■ 


•  ice. 


The  ice  is  ■ 


peaches. 

The  peaches  are  - 


Point  out  the  nouns.     Point  out   the   adjectives. 
I  Which  show  what  kind?     Which  show  what  is  said? 


22  Greene's  introduction. 

Which  of  the  examples  are  sentences.     How  do  you 
know  a  sentence  ?     (See  Lesson  IV.) 

Insert  adjectives  in  the  following  blanks,  —  the 
first  to  show  what  kind,  the  second  to  show  what  is 
said,  thus :  — 

Ripe  pine-apples  are  delicious 

trees  are • 

child  is . 


-  books  are  • 


LESSON  IX. 


What  is  Robert  doing  yonder  ?  Ana. — He  is  walk- 
ing. Then,  he  is  performing  an  action.  What  word 
shall  we  write  for  this  action  ?  Ans.  —  The  word 
walking.  Now,  where  is  the  word  walking  ?  Ans, — 
On  the  board.  Where  is  the  walking  itself,  or  the 
action  walking  ?     Ana, — Yonder,  where  Robert  is. 

Which  can  you  speak,  the  action  or  the  action- 
word  ? 

Point  out  the  action-words  in  the  following  exam- 
ples : — 

The  horse  is  running. 

The  birds  are  flying. 

The  dog  is  barking. 

The  snow  is  failing. 

The  bells  are  ringing. 

Are  these  examples  sentences  ?  What  is  the  sub- 
ject in  each  ?  Why  ?  What  is  the  predicate  ?  Point 
out  the  verb  ?     Then,  like  the  adjective — 


LESSON    NINTH.  28 


may 
stand  as  the  predicate. 

Take  away  the  verb  '  is'  or  ^  are*  from  the  examples 
above.  Is  anything  said  or  aiffirmed  now  ?  Are  they 
sentences  ?  Place  the  action- word  before  the  noun, 
thus : — 

The  running  horse. 

The birds. 

The dog. 

The snow. 

The bells. 

What  kind  of  horse  ?  Of  birds  ?  Of  dog  ?  Of 
snow  ?  Of  bells  ?  Are  these  last  examples  sen- 
tences ?     Then,  like  the  adjective  — 

The  action-word  may  he  added  to  a  noun  to  ex- 
press what  kindj  but  the  words  do  not  form  a  sentence^ 

Alter  the  above  examples,  thus : — 

FIRST   FORM.  SECOND   FORM. 

The  horse  is  running.  The  horse  runs. 

The  birds  are  flying.  The  birds . 

The  dog  is  barking.  The  dog . 

The  snow  is  falling.  The  snow . 

The  bells  are  ringing.  The  bells , 

What  is  said  of  horse  in  the  first  form  ?  What  in 
the  second  ?  What  is  the  action- word  in  the  first  ? 
What  in  the  second?  What  says  or  aflSrms  the  action 
in  the  first  form  ?     What  in  the  second  ?     Then  — 

An  action-word  may  have  two  forms  —  one  can\ 
affirm  or  say  something  ;  the  other  cannot. 
That  which  affirms  is  called  the  VERB. 


24  Greene's  introduction. 


That  which  does  not  affirm  is  called  the  PARTI- 
CIPLE, it  being  partly  verb  and  partly  adjective. 

Name  the  verbs  in  the  examples  above. 
Name  the  participles.     How  are  they  formed  ? 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Insert  participles  in 
the  following  blanks— first,  so  as  to  show  what  is  said; 
and  second,  so  as  to  show  what  kind :  — 

The  sun  ia  rising. 
The  rising  sun. 

The  snow  is . 

The snow. 

The  leaves  are . 

The leaves. 

The  stars  are . 

The stars. 

Insert  verbs  to  fill  the  following  blanks : — 

Trees  grow.  Fishes . 

Honeysuckles .  Kings . 

Rain .  Sparrows . 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  verbs  and 
participles : — 

Studies,  plays,  reading,  gliding,  drinks,  sitting, 
stands. 


LESSON  X. 

Trees  grow. 
What  grow  ?     What  is  said  of  trees  ?     Is  the  ex- 
ample a  sentence  ?     Why  ?     What  is  the   subject  ? 
What  is  the  predicate  ?     How  many  words   in   the 
predicate  ?     What  kind  of  word  is  it?.  Then  — 

A  verl  alone  may  stand  as  a  predicate. 


LESSON    TENTH.  26 

Can  a  participle  alone  stand  as  predicate  ?  Can  a 
noun  ?  Can  an  adjective  ?  Is  an  action-word  always 
a  verb  ?     Is  a  verb  always  an  action-word  ? 

Tell  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples : — 

The  tree  stands. 
The  child  sleeps. 
The  workmen  rest. 
The  boys  sit. 

Are  they  action-words  ?  Ana. — They  are  not ;  — 
they  merely  express  state.     Then  — 

Any  word  which  of  itself  affirms  something ^  whether 
an  action-word  or  not,  is  a  verb. 

Tell  the  verbs,  participles,  nouns,  and  adjectives,  in 
the  following  examples :  — 

A  good  time  is  coming. 
The  tall  oak  bends. 
The  winter  is  cold. 
The  evening  is  dark. 
The  rising  sun  is  bright. 
The  bright  planet  is  setting. 

When  the  participle  is  preceded  by  Hs'  or  ^  are^  the 
two  words  taken  together  are  commonly  called  the 
verb;  as,  *'ts  coming,''  "is  setting.'' 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Fill  these  blanks  — 
the  first  three  with  participles — the  second  three  with 

verbs : — 

The  children  are . 

The lion  frightens  the  flocks. 

The  moon  is brightly. 

Wolves sheep. 

The  grass in  the  meadow. 

The  house on  the  hill. 


26  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  this^  sweet,  and  is; 
another  containing  rideSy  and  street;  another  contain- 
ing sailing^  lake,  and  boat ;  another  containing  gar- 
den,  growing,  and  large;  another  containing  oxen, 
sled,  and  gentle. 


LESSON  XI. 

Note.— The  teacher  here  illustrates  the  adverb,  as  indicated 
in  the  Lesson 

How  does  my  hand  move?     Ans, — Slowly. 
How  does  it  move  now  ?     Ans. — Quickly. 
To  what  are  slowly  and  quickly  added  ?   Ans. — To 
the  verb  move. 

What  do  they  show  ?    Ans. — How  the  hand  moves. 

Arthur  walks  yonder. 

The  examination  commences  to-day. 

Where  does  Arthur  walk  ?  To  what  is  *  yonder' 

added  ?     What  does  it  show  ?  To  what  is  '  to-day' 

added  ?     What  does  it  show  ?  What  kind  of  words 
are  *  walks'  and  '  commences*  ? 

A  word  added  to  a  verb,  to  show  ''how,*  ^  where,'  or 
'  when  *  the  action  takes  place,  is  called  an  Adverb. 

The  weather  is  extremely  cold. 

What  word   shows  how  cold  it  is  ?     To  what  is 
'  extremely*  added  ?     What  kind  of  word  is  '  cold  '  ? 

A  word  added  to  an  adjective  to  show  'how^  the 
quality  is  taken,  is  called  an  adverb. 

Charles  speaks  very  distinctly. 


'-'!? 


LESSON    TWELFTH.  27 

How  does  Charles  speak  ?  What  kind  of  word  is 
*  distinctly?'  What  word  shows  hotv  distinctly  ?  To 
what  is  '  very'  added  ? 

A  word  added  to  an  adverb  is  also  called  an  adverb. 

Point  out  the  adverbs  in  the  following  examples  : — 

Lawrence  writes  carefully. 
Kebecca  is  coming  early. 
That  man  is  very  old. 
The  coachman  drove  more  slowly. 
The  willow  is  growing  there. 
The  ink  is  quite  thick. 
The  steamer  leaves  to-day. 
Henry  entered  too  abruptly. 

Why  is  ^carefully'  an  adverb?  To  what  is  it 
added  ?     What  does  it  show  ? 

Answer  similar  questions  for  each  adverb. 

ExEnciSB   FOR    THE    Slate.     Fill  the  following 

blanks  with  adverbs  : — 

The  sun  shines . 

The  golden  grain  waves . 

The  rooms  are small. 

He  has  acted rashly. 

Put  the  following  adverbs  into  sentences  : — Softly, 
severely,  now,  not,  most,  quite,  everywhere,  generally. 


LESSON   XII. 

To  what  may  an  adjective  be  added  ?  What  may 
it  show  ?  To  what  may  an  adverb  be  added  ?  What 
may  it  show  ? 


28  Greene's  introduction. 


A  word  added  to  another^  to  show  'what  kindy* 
*  how  mant/,  '  how,'  '  where^  '  wheri^  ^c,y  is  said  to 
modify  or  limit  the  meaning  of  the  latter. 

In  the  following  examples,  point  out  the  adjectives 
and  adverbs.  Tell  what  they  show  ;  also,  what  words 
they  modify : — 

This  scarlet  geranium  is  very  showy. 

A  most  glorious  sunset. 

A  few  clouds  are  still  flying. 

On  a  bright,  still  day  in  early  spring. 

The  travellers  were  called  early. 

The  woodbine  climbs  gracefully. 

The  note  contained  a  graceful  apology. 

Eugene  has  bought  two  greyhounds. 

Are  all  these  examples  sentences  ?  Which  are  not  ? 
Are  all  the  adjectives  quality-words?  Which  are 
not  ? 

The  particular  adjectives  '  a^  or  *  aw,'  and  ^  the^ 
are  called  Articles, 

Point  out  the  subjects  and  predicates  in  these 
examples  :  — 

Lions  roar. 
Dogs  bark. 
B«ys  play. 

To  find  the  subject,  ask.  What  roar  ?  What  bark  ? 
&c.  To  find  the  predicate,  ask,  '  What  is  said  of 
lions  ?     Of  dogs  ?  &c. 

Is  cither  the  subject  or  the  predicate  modified  in 
these  sentences  ? 

Point  out  the  subjects  and  predicates  in  the  follow- 
ing examples : — 


LESSON    TWELFTH.  29 


The  cold  wind^  blow. 

A  gentle  shower  is  falling. 

These  books  are  good. 

Is  the  subject  modified  ?     Is  the  predicate  ? 
Ask,  1st.  What  blow?     What  is  falling?  &c. 
2d.  What  is  said  of  the  winds  ?    Of  the  shower  ?  &c. 
3d.  What  kind  of  winds  ?    Of  shower  ? 
Point  out  the  subjects,  predicates,  and  modifying- 
words  in  the  following  sentences  : — 

The  little  child  slumbers  quietly. 
Eight  vessels  sail  to-day. 
The  boy  reads  well. 

To  ascertain  the  diflferent  parts  of  these  sentences, 
ask,    1st.  Who  slumbers  ?     What  sail  ?  &c. 

2d.  What  is  said  of  the  child  ?    Of  the  vessels  ?  &c. 

3d.  What  kind  of  child  ?     How  many  vessels  ?  &c. 

4th.  How  does  the  child  slumber?  When  do  the 
vessels  sail?  &c. 

The  parts  of  a  sentence  may  be  :  1st.  The  subject 
2d.  The  predicate.  3d.  The  words  modifying  the 
subject.     4th.  The  words  modifying  the  predicate. 

When  we  point  out  the  several  parts  of  a  sentence^ 
we  analyse  it. 

Analyse  the  following  sentences : — 

Charlotte  is  going  now. 

This  house  is  extremely  convenient. 

Frank  is  hiding  somewhere. 

That  new  poem  commences  beautifully. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Write  two  sentences, 
each  containing  a  noun  and  a  verb. 

zirz mils 

8* 


80  Greene's  introduction. 


Write  two,  each  containing  a  noun,  a  verb,  and  an 
adjective. 

Write  two,  each  containing  a  noun,  a  verb,  and  an 
adverb. 

Write  two,  each  containing  a  noun,  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, and  an  adverb. 


LESSON  XIII. 

Note. — The  Tjacher  here  illustrates  the  relations  as  indi- 
cated in  the  Lesson. 

Where  is  this  pencil  ?     Ans. — On  the  book. 

Where  is  it  now  ?     Arts. —  Under  the  book. 

What  word  shows  that  its  relation  to  the  book  has 
been  changed  ?     Arts, — The  word  under. 

What  words  show  the  relations  of  the  pencil  to  the 
book  in  the  following  cases  ? 

The  pencil  is  before  the  book. 
The  pencil  is  behind  the  book. 
The  pencil  is  in  the  book. 

What  are  the  relation-words  in  the  following 
examples : — 

The  pencil  falls  from  the  book. 
The  pencil  drops  out  of  the  book. 
The  pencil  moves  towards  the  book. 
The  pencil  falls  upon  the  book. 

Before  what  noun  are  these  relation-words  placed  ? 

Relation-words  are  called  Prepositions^  because 
they  are  '' placed  before''  nouns. 


LBSSON    THIRTEENTH.  81 

Point  out  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : — 

Charles  writes  with  ease. 
The  balloon  hovers  over  the  city. 
The  lark  sings  in  the  morning. 
Alice  stood  on  the  balcony. 

Analyze  the  above  sentences.  What  does  "  with  ease" 
show  ?  Where  does  the  balloon  hover  ?  Wlien  does 
the  lark  sing  ?  What  do  the  words  "  on  the  balcony  " 
show  ?     Then  — 

A  preposition  and  the  following  noun^  when  added 
to  a  verby  may  show,  like  the  adverb^  "  when^'  ''  where^'' 
or  "  how''  an  action  takes  place. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : — 

The  trees  of  the  forest  are  stately. 

The  Queen  of  England  is  a  devoted  mother. 

The  showers  of  spring  fall  gently 

What  trees  are  mentioned  ?  What  does  "  of  Eng- 
land "  show?  What  kind  of  showers  "  fall  gently  *'  ? 
Then  — 

A  preposition  and  the  following  nou7i,  when  added 
to  a  noun,  may  show^  like  the  adjective^  ^'what  kindy' 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  Insert  the  proper  pre- 
position in  the  following  blanks  :  — 

Edgar  walked the  garden. 

The  woodpecker  ran the  trunk the  tree. 

I  rode Providence Boston the  cars. 

Harry  skated the  pond the  evening. 


IL 


GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


These  men  are  hastening the  fire. 

Emma  practised diligence two  hours. 

The  dews  the  morning  glitter the  rays the 

rising  sun. 

Write  sentences  containing  the-  following  preposi- 
tions : — Down,  among,  upon,  between,  around,  along, 
across,  during. 


LESSON  XIV. 

Note. — Illustrate  as  in  the  Lesson. 

What  have  I  in  my  hand  ?     Arts. — A  book  and  a 
slate. 

What  word  do  you  use  to  connect  the  words  *  book ' 
and  '  slate  '  ? 

What  words  are  connected  in  the  following  exam- 
ples :  — 

Frank  and  Margaret  like  nuts  and  apples. 
Richard  and  Robert  are  playing  ball. 

When  I  say  "  Rosamond  or  Laura  wrote  the  let- 
ter,'* can  you  tell  which  one  wi'ote  it  ? 

What  word  do  we  use  to  connect  the  two  names  ? 

Connecting-wordSy  as  ^ or^    ' and^   'but,*  'yet,   ^(?., 
are  called  Conjunctions, 

Point  out  the  conjunctions  in  these  sentences  : — 

The  teacher  and  the  scholars  are  present. 
The  pen  or  the  ink  is  poor. 
Arnold  is  not  angry,  but  sad. 
The  sun  is  larger  than  the  moon. 
Gertrude  has  no  father  nor  mother. 
Washington  always  decided  wisely  and  justly. 


LESSON    FOURTEENTH.  83 

Name  the  nouns,  the  adjectives,  the  verbs,  the 
adverbs,  and  the  prepositions  in  the  preceding  sen- 
tences. 

When  we  are  suddenly  pleased,  or  frightened,  or 
grieved,  we  often  express  our  emotion  by  such  excla- 
mations as,  Oh  !  Alas  !  What !  kc.  Point  out  the 
emotion-words  in  the  following  examples : — 

What !  is  it  possible  that  you  are  here  ? 

Alas  !  alas  !  my  axe  is  lost. 

Adieu  !  ray  native  land,  adieu  I 

Ah  me  1  I  fear  the  worst. 

Hail!  hail  to  thee,  great  chief! 

0  thoughts  ineffable  !     0  visions  blest  I 

Emotion-ivords  are  called  Interjections. 

Exercise  for  tue  Slate.  Write  sentences  con- 
taining these  interjections : — 

Ah!  Hush!  Hurrah!  Oh!  Hark!  Fiel 
Write  sentences  containing  these  conjunctions : — 

But,  and,  if,  then,  that,  because. 
Write  six  sentences  containing  — 

1.  A  noun,  verb,  and  adverb. 

2.  A  noun,  verb,  and  participle. 

3.  Two  adjectives  connected  by  a  conjunction. 

4.  A  preposition  and  a  participle. 

5.  An  adjective  used  in  the  predicate. 

6.  One  no^n  joined  to  another  to  tell  which  oiu  is 
meant. 


-J 


84  Greene's  introduction. 


LESSON  XV. 

"What  is  a  noun  ?  Has  every  object  you  have  seen 
a  name  ? 

What  is  the  name  of  this?  (The  Teacher  here 
holds  up  a  book.)  Ans, — A  book.  And  this?  Ans. — 
A  book.     And  this  ?     Ans, — A  book.     Then — 

Uach  one  of  this  kind  or  class  of  objects  has  the 
same  name,  ^' book,''  ivhich  is  common  to  all 

Has  every  tree  a  name  common  to  all  ?  What  is 
it  ?  Has  every  boy  a  name  common  to  all  ?  What 
is  it  ?  Has  Albert  a  name  in  common  with  all  other 
boys  ?  What  is  his  own  particular  name,  not  common 
to  all  boys  ? 

The  same  object  may  have  two  names,  a  common 
name,  and  a  particular  or  proper  name. 

What  two  names  have  the  following  objects : — Gil- 
bert, Grace,  Liverpool,  France,  Hudson,  America  ? 
Has  a  book  a  common  and  a  proper  name  ? 
Has  a  tree  ?     A  stove  ?     A  table  ? 

Proper  names  are  given  only  to  important  objects, 
as  persons  or  places  ? 

Tell  which  of  these  nouns  are  common,  and  which 
are  proper  : — King,  Percival,  grapes,  inkstand,  Cuba, 
RoUo,  Clara. 

Every  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capital. 


LESSON    SIXTEENTH.  35 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.-— In  the  following  exam- 
ples, put  a  common  noun  in  the  first  blank,  and  a 
proper  noun  in  the  second : — 


•  was  fought  in  • 


What flows  into  the  • 

A  — ' sailed  across  the  - 


Fill  these  blanks,  and  tell  what  kind  of  nouns  you 
insert : — 


•  is  walking  with  his  ■ 


The commanded  the to  march  to . 

is  situated  on  an . 

Write   three  sentences,  each  containing  a  proper 
noun. 


LESSON  XVI. 

How  many  books  have  I  ?     Ans. — One. 
One  what  ?     An$. — One  book. 
Spell  the  word  as  I  write  it. 

How  many  books  have  I  now  ?     An8.-—Tvfo  books. 
How  do  you  spell  the  word  now  ? 
What  letter  have  you  added  ? 
Why  do  you  add  the  letter  s  ?     Ans,  —  Because 
there  were  two  books  instead  of  one.     Then  — 

The  word  changes  07i  account  of  the  number  of 
books. 

How  did  you  write  the  word  when  the  number  was 
one  ?  How  would  you  write  it,  if  the  number  were 
two,  three,  five,  twenty,  or  a  hundred  ?     Then  — 

The  word  changes  when  we  pass  from  one  to  more 
than  one. 


36  GREENE*S    INTRODUCTION. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  nouns  mean  one,  and 
which  mean  more  than  one :  —  Brook,  doers,  island, 
day,  bricks,  desk,  car,  miles,  robins  ? 

Alter  those  which  mean  but  one,  so  that  they  will 
mean  more  than  one ;  and  those  which  mean  more 
than  one,  so  that  they  will  mean  but  one. 

When  a  noun  means  but  one,  it  is  of  the  singular 
number. 

When  a  noun  means  more  than  one,  it  is  of  the 
'plural  number. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  nouns  are  common,  and 
which  proper  : — Reuben,  wafer,  fingers,  Salem,  mu- 
seum, trees. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate. — Write  the  plural  of  the 
following  nouns : — 

Paper,  boy,  girl,  rose,  house. 
Thrush,  marsh,  box,  bush,  church. 
Knife,  wife,  loaf,  sheaf,  leaf. 
Fly,  cry,  mercy,  glory,  ally. 

Write  three  sentences,  containing  each  a  plural 
noun,  and  three,  containing  each  a  singular  noun. 


LESSOJJT   XVII. 

James  says  to  George,  "Herbert  is  writiQg." 
How  many  persons  or  parties  are  here  n^entioned  ? 
Ans, — Three. 

Which  person  is  speaking  ? 
Which  one  is  spoken  tof 


LESSON    SEVENTEENTH.  87 


Which  one  is  spoken  off 

Suppose  Herbert  wished  to  tell  George  that  he  him- 
self was  writing,  would  he  say  ''  Herbert  is  writing  ?" 
Ans. — No  ;  he  would  say,  "  /  am  writing." 

If  the  sentence  stood  thus  :  Herbert  says  to  George, 
"  Herbert  is  writing,'*  would  you  be  sure  that  Herbert 
v/as  speaking  of  himself? 

IVhen  one  speaks  of  himself  he  uses  "/**  instead 
cf  his  own  name. 

If  James  were  to  speak  to  Herlert^  and  not  to 
George,  as  before,  would  he  say  ^'  Herbert  is  writing  ?  *' 
Ans, — No;  he  w^ould  say,  ''  You  are  writing." 

If  he  should  say,  ''  Herbert  is  writing,"  would  you 
think  that  he  was  speaking  to  Herbert  or  to  some  one 
else? 

When  we  speak  to  any  one  of  himself  we  use  ''you'' 
instead  of  his  ow7i  name, 

James  says  to  George,  "Herbert  is  writing,  but 
Herbert  will  soon  finish." 

What  word  shall  w^e  insert  to  avoid  the  repetition 
of  "  Herbert  ?  "  Ans,  —  "  He  ;"  we  can  say,  *'  Her- 
bert is  writing,  but  he  will  soon  finish."     Then  — 

When  we  speak  of  another  person^  we  use  his  name 
oncey  and  then,  to  avoid  repeating  it^  we  use  ''he.'' 

For  w^hat  noun  have  we  used  "I,"  "you,"  and 
"he?" 

A  word  used  for  a  noun  is  called  a  pronoun. 
What  kind  of  words  are  "I,"  "you,"  and  "he?" 


38  Greene's   introduction. 

What  pronoun  did  we  use  when  Herbert  was 
speaking  ? 

What  when  he  was  spoken  to  ? 

What  when  he  was  spoken  of?     Then  — 

We  use  different  pronouns  for  the  same  individual 
person,  when  he  changes  from  the  speaker  to  the  one 
spoken  to,  or  spoken  of. 

Insert  the  proper  pronouns  to  represent  "Walter'* 
in  the  following  blanks  :  — 

"  Come/'  says  AValter,  "  —  am  ready  for  my  ride." 

Walter,  when  are coming  home  ? 

Walter  is  very  ingenious ;  —  has  made  a  little  printing-press. 

Where  is  Walter  the  speaker  ?  What  pronoun  re- 
presents him  in  that  relation  ?  In  which  example  is 
he  spoken  to  ?  Why  do  we  change  the  pronoun  from 
"I"  to  *'you?"  Ans.  —  Because  Walter  changes 
from  the  speaker  to  the  one  spoken  to. 

What  pronoun  represents  Walter  as  spoken  of? 
What  have  we  changed,  the  individual,  or  the  pronoun 
that  represents  him  ? 

In  speaking,  we  represent  all  objects  as  standing  in 
one  of  these  relations,  called  personal  relations,  or 
persons. 

The  speaker  is  the  first  person. 

The  one  spoken  to  is  the  second  person. 

The  one  spoken  of  is  the  third  person. 

Pronouns  which  point  out  these  three  relations,  are 
called  Personal  Pronouns. 


LESSON    SEVENTEENTH.  39 

Name  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  following 
examples,  and  tell  whi<ih  of  the  three  persons-  they 
represent  :— 

I  have  seen  your  father ;  he  is  very  ill. 
Well,  Fanny,  when  do  you  leave  school. 
Poor  boy  !  he  is  much  to  be  pitied. 

In  the  last  example,  what  would  have  been  the  pro- 
noun, if,  instead  of  hoy^  it  had  been  hoys  ?  Ans,  — 
They.     Thus :  — 

Poor  boys!  ^/^e?/ are  much  to  be  pitied. 

Then  — 

The  pronoun  changes  when  the  number  of  the  noun 
changes^  so  that  both  may  be  of  the  same  number. 

Write  a  subject  for  each  of  these  three  sentences : 


/ 


■  am  speaking. 

■  are  reading. 
•  is  writing. 


Can  you  put  a  noun  for  the  first  subject  ?  Can  you 
use  the  same  form  of  the  verb  with  the  three  different 
persons?     Then  — 

The  verb  changes  when  the  person  of  the  subject 
chayiges. 

Point  out  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  these  exam- 
ples.    Tell  the  number  and  person  of  each : — 

Philip  is  flying  a  kite. 

Do  you  see  the  old  farm  house  ? 

I  am  very  fond  of  mignonette. 

Carroll  is  an  excellent  carpenter;  he  is  constantly  employed. 


'40  Greene's  introduction. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

How  can  you  improve  the  following  sentence :  — 
When  Henry  went  to  school,  Henry  told  the  Teacher 
j  that  Henry  wished  to  study  Geography  Ans. — By 
using  he  instead  of  the  words  in  italics. 

Suppose  the  sentence  were,  When  Anna  went  to 
school,  &c.,  how  could  you  avoid  the  repetition  of 
Anna  ?     Ans. — By  using  she  ? 

What  ^kind  of  words  are  he  and  she  ?     Why  ? 

Why  do  you  use  she  rather  than  he?  Ans.  — 
Because  Anna  is  the  name  of  a  female. 

What  is  Henry  the  name  of?     Ans. — A  male. 

What  word  is  repeated  in  the  following  sentence  : 

Louifa  bought  a  book,  and  when  she  had  examined  the  pic- 
tures in  the  book,  she  began  to  read  the  book. 

What  word  would  you  use  to  avoid  the  repetition 
of  "  book  V     Ans. — The  pronoun  ''  it." 

Why  do  we  use  "it"  rather  than  "he"  or  "she?" 
Ans. — Because  hook  is  the  name  of  neither  a  male  nor 
a  female.     Then  — 

We  use  the  pronoun  "  he  "  for  the  name  of  a  7nale, 
"  she  "  for  the  name  of  a  femah,  and  "  it  "  for  the 
name  of  an  object  that  is  neither  male  nor  female. 

Tell  what  pronoui  s  we  must  use  for  each  of  the 
following  nouns :  — 

Gertrude,  boy,  river,  Allen,  cow,  letter,  Alfred. 

We  use  these  different  prononns  to  distinguish  the 
gender  of  the  nouns. 


fr 


LESSON    EIGHTEENTH.  41 

Nouns  and  pronouns^  then,  may  have  three  genders : 
The  Masculine,  for  the  names  of  males. 
The  Feminine,  for  the  names  of  females. 
The  Neuter  (neither),  for  the  names  of  objects  neither 
male  7ior  female. 

Tell  the  gender  of  the  following  nouns,  and  use  a 
pronoun  to  represent  each  in  the  third  person: — 
Poet,  stone,  mother,  Florence,  Paul,  table,  carpet. 

What  is  the  gender  of  '  poet '  ?     Of  ^  he '  ? 
What  is  the  gender  of  '  Florence '  ?     Of  *  she  '  ? 
What  is  the  gender  of  '  carpet  *  ?     Of  '  it '  ? 
Then  — 

The  pronoun  agrees  in  gender  with  the  noun  for 
which  it  stands. 

Tell  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  following  exam- 
ples. What  kind  of  noun  ?  Of  pronoun  ?  What 
person  ?     What  number  ?     What  gender  ? 

Pigeons  fly  in  such  immense  flocks,  that  they  often  break 
down  the  branches  of  the  trees,  when  they  alight. 

Virginia  sketches  beautifully  ;  she  studies  nature. 

John  is  so  lame  that  he  is  obliged  to  ride  to  school. 

That  engraving  is  very  fine  ;  I  intend  to  buy  it. 

Have  you  concluded  to  purchase  that  house  ? 

We  must  visit  Niagara  Palls. 

Exercise  roR  the  Slate. — Write  sentences  con- 
taining the  following  pronouns  : — 

I,  you,  he,  she,  it,  we,  they,  and  ye. 

Represent  the  following  nouns  by  appropriate  pro- 
nouns : — 

Arnold,  Cornelia,  grandfather,  hens,  chisel,  parents. 

1 . . 

_  . 


42  Greene's  introduction. 

LESSON  XIX. 

Henry  is  reading. 

What  pronoun  may  we  use  instead  of  Henry  ? 

Why  he  rather  than  she  or  it  ?  Than  I  or  you  ? 
Than  they  ? 

Tell  the  person,  number,  and  gender  of  Henry. 

If  either  of  these  should  change,  could  you  use  he  ? 
Then  — 

The  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  noun  for  which  it 
stands,  in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

Now  change  the  place  of  Henry,  and  let  it  stand 
after  a  verb  or  after  a  preposition,  thus : — 

John  saw  Henry. 
Mary  spoke  to  Henry. 

Is  the  person,  number,  or  gender  of  Henry  changed  ? 
Must  we,  then,  use  '  he  '  for  it  as  before  ?  Ans,  — 
No  ;  for  then  we  should  say — 

John  saw  he. 
Mary  spoke  to  lie. 

What  should  we  use  ?     Ans. — Him. 
Then  — 

The  pronoun  is  changed  when  the  noun  changes  its 
relation  to  the  other  words  in  the  sentence. 

A  noun  placed  before  a  verb,  answering  the  question 
*  who  ?'  or  ^  what  ?  *  is  in  the  relation  of  subject,  and 
is  said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  case, 

A  noun  placed  after  a  verb  or  a  preposition,  an- 


LESSON    NINETEENTH.  43 

swering  the  question  'whom?'  or  'whatP  is  in  the 
relation  of  object^  and  is  said  to  be  in  the  Objective 
ease. 

Eben's  book  is  torn. 

What  word  shows  whose  book  is  torn  ?  Ans,  — 
Eben's. 

"What  mark  is  used  before  the  "s"  in  Ebon's? 
Ans, — An  apostrophe. 

What  pronoun  can  you  put  in  place  of  Eben's? 
Ans, —  His;  as, 

His  book  is  torn. 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  shows  possession,  or 
^'  whose  "  anything  is,  it  is  in  the  Possessive  case, 

A  noun  or  pronoiin  may  have  three  cases:  the 
Nominative,  the  Possessive,  and  the  Objective, 

What  is  the  case  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  when  it 
stands  as  the  subject?  When  it  stands  as  the  object? 
When  it  shows  possession  ? 

Give  the  case  of  the  following  nouns  and  pronouns : 

Harriet  is  in  her  garden. 

Jungles  abound  in  Hindostan. 

Merton's  dog  has  bitten  a  child. 

I  bought  the  pencils  at  Clark's. 

I  have  read  Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States. 

How  many  different  kinds  of  words  are  there? 
Ans, — Eight. 

What  are  they  ?  Ans, — The  Noun,  the  Adjective, 
the  Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Adverb,  the  Preposition, 
the  Conjunction,  and  the  Interjection. 


44  Greene's  introduction. 


These  different  hinds  of  words  are  called  Parts  of 
Speech, 

To  parse  a  word,  is  to  tell  what  part  of  speech  it  is, 
and  all  that  belongs  to  it.     Thus  — 

To  parse  a  Noun  or  Pronoun,  is  to  tell  — 

1.  The  Part  of  Speech. 

2.  What  kind. 

3.  What  person. 

4.  What  number. 
6.  What  gender. 
6.  What  case. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  then  parse  the 
nouns  and  pronouns  : — 

Peace  has  been  declared? 

Isabella  is  reading  Tennyson's  poems, 

Richard  has  broken  the  lark's  wing. 

The  fire  burns  brightly. 

This  cart  has  lost  its  wheel. 

My  father  reproved  him. 

I  will  go  with  you. 


LESSON  XX. 

**  I  found in  the  orchard." 

Is  the  meaning  complete  in  this  example  ? 
Fill  the  hlank  with  a  noun  — 

1.  In  the  masculine  gender. 

2.  In  the  feminine  gender. 

3.  In  the  neuter  gender. 

What  pronouns  can  you  use  for  these  nouns  ? 


LESSON    TWENTIETH.  45 

What  is  the  case  of  each  ? 

Can  you  use  the  Nominative  case  ?     Try  it. 

A  verb  which  takes  the  objective  case  immediately 
after  it^  is  called  a  Transitive  verb. 

What  kind  of  verb  is  ''found  f 
See  if  you  can  put  the  pronouns  him  or  her  in  the 
blanks  of  the  following  examples  : 

^  The  sun  rises . 

The  enow  falls . 

Does  it  make  sense  to  say,  "The  sun  rises  him;'' 
"  The  snow  falls  Aer.?'' 

A  verb  which  does  not  take  an  objective  case  immedi- 
ately after  it,  is  called  an  Intransitive  verb. 

What  kind  of  verbs  are  ''rises''  and  "falls"  ? 
See  which  of  these  blanks  can  be  filled  with  him^ 
her^  or  iti — 

The  birds  eat . 

The  trees  bend . 

"We  found , 

Tke  stars  get . 


Which  of  the  verbs  above  are  transitive  ?  Which 
are  intransitive  ?     How  can  you  tell? 

George  struck  William. 

What  kind  of  verb  is  "struck?"  Why?  What 
case  is  "  William  ?"     What  case  is  "  George  V 

Which  one  is  the  actor  ?  Which  one  receives  the 
action  ?  What  pronoun  represents  each  ?  Which  is 
the  subject  of  the  sentence,  —  the  actor,  or  receiver 
of  the  action  ? 


46  GREENES    INTRODUCTION. 

William  was  struck  by  George. 

Does  tlie  sentence  mean  the  same  as  before  ?  Is 
the  actor  the  same  ?  Is  the  receiver  of  the  action  the 
same  ?  Now,  will  the  same  pronouns  represent  George 
and  William  as  before  ?  Which  is  the  subject  now, 
the  actor,  or  the  receiver  of  the  action  ?     Then  — 

When  the  object  becomes  the  subject,  its  case  is 
changed. 

What  was  the  verb  when  the  actor  was  the  subject  ? 
What  is  it  now  ?     Then  — 

The  verb  changes  its  form  when  the  object  becomes 
the  subject. 

When  the  actor  is  the  subject,  the  form  of  the  verb 
is  called  the  Active  voice. 

Wlien  the  receiver  of  the  action  is  the  subject,  the 
form  is  called  the  Passive  voi<;e. 

Can  intransitive  verbs  have  a  passive  voice  ?  Ans. 
— No  ;  because  they  have  no  object,  or  receiver  of  the 
action. 

Point  out  the  transitive  and  the  intransitive  verba 
in  the  following  examples  : — 

The  owl  sits  upon  the  tree. 
Gertrude  has  finished  her  picture. 
The  pears  were  injured  by  the  frost. 
The  sun  shines  upon  the  water. 
The  fire  has  scorched  the  grass. 
The  robin  is  feeding  her  young. 

Change  the  sentences  containing  the  Transitive 
verbs,  thus : — 


L- 


LESSON    TWENTY-FIRST.  47 


The  committee  visited  the  school. 

The  school  was  visited  by  the  committee. 

Tell,  of  each  sentence,  whether  it  is  in  the  active  or 
the  passive  voice. 

Exercise  por  the  Slate.  —  Fill  the  following 
blanks,  and  tell  whether  the  verbs  inserted  are  transi- 
tive or  intransitive  : — 

Josephine ripe  grapes. 

The  sun in  the  west. 

He me  to  Boston. 

Her  father by  a  fall. 

The  ambassador for  Liverpool, 

Little  Willie down  stairs. 

Write  six  sentences  —  two  having  transitive  verbs 
in  the  Active  voice,  two  in  the  Passive  voice,  and  two 
with  intransitive  verbs. 


LESSO]^   XXI. 

The  boy playing. 

Is  anything  asserted  or  declared  in  this  example  ? 
Put  in  a  word  to  declare  that  the  boy  is  actually 
playing. 

What  word  have  you  inserted  ?     Ans,  —  "  Is,'' 
Now  fill  the  blank  so  as  to  assert,  not  that  he  is 
actually  playing,  but  that  he  may,  perhaps,  be  play- 
ing. 

Then  the  verb  changes  its  form^  when  the  action 
which  is  asserted  is  not  real,  or  actual. 


48  Greene's  introduction. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  verbs  assert  an  action 
as  actually  taking  place  : — 

The  rain  is  falling. 

The  wind  may  blow. 

The  dog  is  barking  at  the  cat. 

The  horse  can  draw  the  wagon. 

Arthur  must  study  Geography. 

When  a  verb  asserts  an  action  as  actually  taking 
place,  it  is  in  the  Indicative  mode. 

When  it  asserts  what  mayy  can,  or  must  takeplace^ 
it  is  in  the  Potential  mode. 

Tell  the  mode  of  the  verbs  above. 

Jane  will  come,  if  it  does  not  rain. 
Is  it  certain  that  Jane  will  come  ? 
On  what  condition  will  she  come  ?     Ans. — On  the 
condition  that  it  does  not  rain. 

When  a  verb,  as  "  does  rain,**  asserts  a  condition 
for  another  eventy  it  is  in  the  Subjunctive  mode. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  verbs  that  show  a 
condition  for  the  preceding  events : — 

I  will  play  with  Charles,  if  mother me. 

You  can  learn  this  lesson,  if  you . 

"What  is  the  mode  of  each  verb  which  you  insert  ? 

Edward,  bring  me  your  slate. 

What  is  Edward  commanded  to  do  ?     Ans.  —  To 
bring  his  slate. 

When  a  verb  asserts  a  command,  or  an  entreaty,  it 
is  in  the  Imperative  mode. 


LESSON    TWENTY-SECOND,  49 

Fill  these  blanks  :  — 

Richard, your  lesson. 

Sarah, here. 

Children, your  parents. 

What  is  the  mode  of  these  verbs  ? 

**  To  walk  in  the  garden." 
Is  anything  asserted  here  ? 
Does  "  to  walh"  express  action  ? 

The  verb  with  "  to  "  placed  before  it,  is  said  to  be  in 
th  I  Infinitive  mode.     It  does  not  assert  anything. 

Tell  the  mode  of  the  following  verbs : — 

The  boy  may  catch  a  fish. 

The  tree  is  broken  by  the  wind. 

Come,  Edmund,  play  with  me. 

I  will  go,  if  you  will  explain  my  lesson. 

The  leaves  begin  to  fall. 

Which  are  transitive  ?     Which   are   intransitive  ? 
Which  are  in  the  active  voice  ?   Which  in  the  passive  ? 


LESSON  XXil. 

Fill  the  following  blank  with  a  word  to  declare  what 
Maria  does  now :  — 

Maria studying  her  .lesson  noic. 

What  kind  of  word  have  you  inserted  ?  Can  there 
be  a  sentence  without  a  verb  ?  What  other  form  30uld 
you  give  to  the  predicate  so  as  to  use  but  one  word 
instead  of  "  is  studying  ?''     [See  Lesson  IX.] 


60  Greene's  introduction. 


Now  fill  the  blank  with  a  word  to  declare  what 
Maria  did  yesterday : — 

Maria studying  her  lesson  yesterday. 

What  word  have  you  now  inserted  ?  Is  it  the  same 
word  as  before  ?  Why  do  you  use  a  different  word  in 
this  case  ?  Ans. — Because  the  time  of  the  action  is 
changed  from  now  to  yesterday.     Then  — 

The  verb  changes  when  the  time  of  the  action 
changes. 

Make  the  same  change  of  time,  and  express  the 
predicate  in  one  word. 

What  is  the  verb  ? 

Now  fill  the  blank  so  as  to  declare  what  Maria  will 
do  to-morrow : — 

Maria ■-  studying  her  lesson  to-mcrrow. 

What  words  have  you  inserted  now?  Are  they 
difiercnt  from  the  preceding  ?  Why  have  you  changed 
the  verb  ? 

When  a  verb  shows  what  is  taking  place  now,  or  at 
the  time  of  speaking,  it  denotes  present  time,  and  is 
in  the  Present  tense. 

When  it  shows  what  took  place  in  past  time,  it  is 
in  the  Past  tense. 

When  it  shows  what  will  take  place  in  future  time, 
it  is  in  the  Future  tense. 

In  what  tense  is  ''  is  studying,**  or  "  studies  **  ? 
In  what  tense  is  "  was  studying,**  or  "  studied  **  ? 


LESSON   TWENTY-SECOND.  51 

In  what  tense  is  ^' will  be  studying,''  or  "mK 
study''  ? 

There  are  three  divisions  of  time  —  Present,  Past, 
and  Future, 

Tell  to  wliich  division  each  of  the  following  verbs 
belongs : — 

The  wind  blew  off  Kate's  bonnet. 
The  sun  is  rising  over  the  lake. 
The  boys  will  enjoy  the  fine  skating. 
The  fox  was  caught  by  the  hounds. 
Caesar  crossed  the  Eubicon. 
The  leaves  will  soon  be  falling. 

When  we  say  "birds  sing/'  does  it  mean  the  birds 
are  really  singing  now,  or  only  that  they  do  sing 
sometimes? 

If  they  were  actually  singing  at  this  moment,  what 
would  you  say  ?     Ans,  — The  birds  are  singing. 

Is  the  singing  completed,  or  is  it  going  on  ?  Should 
we  say  "  The  birds  have  sung  yesterday,"  or  ''  The 
birds  have  sung  to-day  V'  Ans, — The  birds  have  sung 
to-day. 

Does  "to-day"  denote  present  or  past  time? 

Then,  what  is  the  tense  of  "  have  sung  ?  Is  the 
act  of  singing  completed,  or  is  it  going  on  ?    Then  — 

The  verb  changes  in  order  to  show  different  states 
of  the  act ;  that  is,  whether  it  is  going  on,  or  whether 
it  is  completed.  When  the  verb  shows  what  is  done 
sometimes,  or  what  is  accustomed  to  be  done,  it  takes 
the  common  form  ;  as.  Trees  grow. 

When  the  verb  shows  what  is  going  on,  but  not  yet 


52  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

finished^  it  takes  the  progressive  form ;  as.  The  trees 
are  growing. 

When  the  verb  shows  what  is  finished^  or  eompletedj 
it  takes  the  form  called  the  Perfect;  as.  The  trees  have 
grown. 

He  BpeakC. 
lie  spoke. 
He  will  speak. 

What  is  tlie  form  of  the  verb  in  the  above  exam- 
ples?    What  is  the  time  indicated  bj  each  verb? 

lie  18  speaking. 
He  was  speaking. 
He  will  be  speaking. 

What  is  now  the  form  of  the  verb  ?  Give  the  time 
indicated  in  each  example. 

He  has  spoken. 
He  had  spoken. 
He  will  have  spoken. 

What  is  the  form  of  the  verb  in  these  examples  ? 
What  time  is  indicated  by  each  verb  ? 

Exercise  for  the  Slate. — Write,  as  above,  the 
Present,  Past,  and  Future  of  the  verbs  drivCy  rain, 
Sind  fig,  in  the  common  form  —  in  the  progressive 
form  —  in  the  perfect. 

Write  the  Past  and  Perfect  tenses  to  each  of  the 
following  verbs.     Thus  — 

Present  lense.  PaM  tense.  Perfect  tense. 

Write.                             Wrote.  Have  written. 

Play.  .  . 

Sing.  .  . 


a 


LESSON  TWENTY- THIRD.                   53 

Present  tense*  Past  tense.              Perfect  tense. 

Invite.  .  , 

Enjoy.  .  . 


LESSOIT  XXIII 

In  the  exercise  for  the  slate,  how  many  of  the  past 
tenses  end  in  ed?  How  do  the  past  tenses  of  the 
others  end  ?  Give  the  past  tenses  of  grieve^  sit,  lielp^ 
and  tell  which  end  in  ed. 

How  many  words  are  used  to  form  the  Perfect 
tense  of  each  verb  ?  What  one  word  is  used  in  each 
Perfect  tense?     Ans. — Have. 

The  word  wJiich  unites  with  ''have,''  to  form  the 
Perfeet  tense,  is  called  the  Past  Participle. 

How  can  you  find  the  past  participle  of  a  verb  ? 
Ans. — By  forming  the  Perfect  tense. 

Form  the  Perfect  tenses  of  join,  rise,  believe,  see, 
vote,  give,  and  tell  the  Past  Participles. 

Which  of  the  Past  Participles  end  in  ed  P 

When  the  Past  tense  and  Past  Participle  of  a  verb 
are  formed  bt/  adding  "ed''  *  to  the  Present  tense,  the 
verb  is  called  Regular. 

When  the  Past  tense  and  Past  Participle  of  a 
verb  are  not  formed  by  adding  "  ed"  to  the  Present, 
the  verb  is  called  Irregular. 


*  The  final  e  of  the  present  is  dropped  before  the  addition  is 
made ;  as,  Love,  lov-ed. 


6* 


54  Greene's  introduction. 


Tell  which  of  the  following  verbs  are  regular,  and 
which  are  irregular : — 

Forrester  has  sold  his  horse. 
The  water  is  wearing  the  rock. 
The  maple  produces  sugar. 
Amy  loves  her  little  sister. 
Summer  and  winter  fail  not. 
Ho  has  given  liberally  to  the  poor. 


LESSON  XXIV. 

He  is  walking. 

What  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence  ? 

Tell  its  person,  number,  gender,  and  case. 

Can  you  write  the  sentence  correctly,  and  change 
the  case  of  the  subject  to  the  possessive  or  objective  ? 
Ans. — No  ;  for  then  it  would  be  "/««  "  or  "Am  "  is 
walking. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  must  always  he  in  the 
Nomindtive  case. 

Can  you  write  the  sentence  correctly  and  change 
the  gender  of  the  subject  ?  Ans. — Yes  ;  for  then  it 
would  be,  "  She  is  walking,''  or  "  It  is  walking.'* 

Can  you  write  the  sentence  correctly  and  change 
the  person  of  the  subject  without  changing  any  other 
word  ?  Ans. — No ;  for  then  it  would  be,  "  I  is  walk- 
ing," or  "  You  is  walking;"  it  should  be,  I  am  walk- 
ing," ''  You  are  walking." 

These  different  forms,  "  a7w,"  ''are,'*  and  ^' is,'' 
represent  the  persons  of  the  verb;  ^'am*'  is  the  first 


LESSON    TWENTY-FOURTH.  55 

person;'*  "are''  is  the  second  person;  and  "is**  is 
the  third  person. 

Can  you  write  the  sentence  correctly,  and  change 
the  number  of  the  subject,  without  changing  any  other 
word  ?  Ans.  — No  ;  for  then  it  would  be,  "  They  is 
walking."     It  should  be,  "  They  are  walking." 

These  different  formSj  "is"  and  "  are,**  represent 
the  number  of  the  verb. 

The  verb  must  "always  agree  with  the  subject  in 
number  and  person, 

.In  the  following  examples,  parse  the  subjects,  and 
point  out  the  verbs,  telling  what  hind^  what  mode^ 
what  tense^  what  person  and  number. 

Gratitude  is  the  memory  of  the  heart.; 
The  book  was  written  by  my  father. 
The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  Qbd. 
If  it  rains,  you  will  be  disappointed. 
I  have  read  Macaulay's  History. 
Frank  had  been  learning  to  write. 
We  are  intending  to  go  to  Europe. 
He  had  gone  before  you  came. 
Children,  obey  your  parents. 
Listen  to  the  morning  song  of  the  Hrd8, 

In  parsing  a  verb,  tell  — 

1.  What  it  is. 

2.  AVhat  form,  Regular  or  Irregular. 

3.  What  kind,  Transitive  or  Intransitive. 

4.  What  voice. 

5.  What  mode. 

6.  What  tense. 

7.  What  person. 

8.  What  number. 


56  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


LESSON   XXV. 

Edward  and  Arthur  are  tall. 

What  quality  belongs  to  both  ? 
Is  it  said  that  they  are  equally  tall  ? 
How  can  we  ascertain  whether  they  are   equally 
tall  ?     Ans. — By  comparing  them. 
Are  these  pencils  equally  long? 
Are  these  apples  equally  large 
'What  have  I  just  compared  ? 
What  quality  belongs  to  the  pencils  ? 
What  quality  belongs  to  the  apples  ? 

When  we  compare  objects,  tve  make  use  of  some 
quality  belonging  to  each,  as  a  means  of  comparison. 

Edward  is  as  tall  as  Arthur. 

Are  Edward  and  Arthur  compared  in  this  example  ? 
In  comparing  them,  what  quality  do  we  use  ?  What 
word  is  placed  before  and  after  the  adjective  tall  P  Is 
the  meaning  the  same  when  Arthur  is  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence  ?     Are  they  equally  tall? 

To  show  that  two  objects,  when  compared,  haue  the 
same  degree  of  a  quality,  we  place  ^^as''  before  and 
after  the  adjective. 

James  is  taller  than  Arthur. 

Arthur  is  more  industrious  than  Edward. 

Edward  is  less  industrious  than  Arthur. 

Who  are  compared  in  the  first  example?  What 
quality  is  employed  in  the  comparison?     Does  the 


LESSON    TWENTY-FIFTH.  57 

quality  belong  equally  to  each?  Which  has  the 
greater  degree  of  it  ?  Can  you  change  the  place  of 
James  and  Arthur  without  changing  the  meaning? 
What  syllable  is  added  to  tall  ? 

Who  are  compared  in  the  second  and  third  exam- 
ples ? 

What  quality  is  employed  in  the  comparison  ?  Is 
the  quality  possessed  by  each  in  an  equal  degree? 
Who  has  the  greater  degree  ?  Have  we  changed  the 
place  of  Edward  and  Arthur  without  changing  the 
meaning  ?  What  word  is  added  to  "industrious  ''  in 
each  ? 

To  show  that  two  objects,  when  compared,  have 
different  degrees  of  a  quality/,  we  either  add  ''er"  to 
the  adjective,  or  'place  ^' more''  or  ''less'*  before  it. 

Harvey  is  the  tallest  of  all  the  boys  in  school. 
Murray  is  the  most  punctual  of  all  the  boys  in  school. 
Richard  is  the  least  studious  of  all  the  boys  in  school. 

In  these  examples,  with  whom  are  Harvey,  Murray, 
and  Richard  compared  ?  Ans,  —  With  all  the  boys 
in  school. 

What  qualities  are  employed  ?  Do  these  qualities 
belong  equally  to  all  ?  Who  has  the  highest  or  lowest 
degree  of  each  quality  ?  What  syllable  do  you  add 
to  'Hall''?  What  word  is  added  to  " punctual"  ? 
What  to  "studious"  ? 

To  show  that  one  of  several  objects,  referred  to^ 
when  compared,  has  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  of  a 
quality,  we  either  add  "  est "  to  the  adjective,  or  place 
^'most  "  or  "  least  "  before  it. 


58  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


Tl 


These  chances  of  the  adjective  are  called  Degreen 
of  Comparison, 

There  are  three  degrees,  namely  :  — 

1.  The  Positive  ;  as,  tall,  careful. 

2.  The  Comparative  ;  as  taller,  more  careful,  less  careful. 

3.  The  Superlative;  as,  tallest,  most  careful,  least  careful. 

Give  the  degree  of  each  of  the  following  adjectives : 

She  is  the  merriest  child  I  eve/  saw. 
A  bright  light  is  painful  to  the  eyes. 
This  road  is  muddier  than  the  other. 
Harold  is  more  unhappy  than  his  brother. 
This  is  the  most  peaceful  valley  in  the  land. 
Our  French  lessons  are  now  less  difficult. 

Note. — The  Teacher  may  here  introduce,  if  he  thinks  proper, 
the  irregular  comparison  of  adjectives,  and  the  comparison  of 
adverbs. 

Exercise  for  the  Slate.  —  Fill  the  following 
blanks  with  adjectives,  and  tell  the  degree  of  each  : — 

Honesty  is  the policy. 

Be of  your  health. 

Be  not in  well-doing. 

Gerald  is  the of  my  sons. 

Constance  is than  Augusta. 

The toys  are  bought  here. 

Write  the  comparatives  and  superlatives  for  the 
following  adjectives : — 

Wise,  warm,  lovely,  noble,  beautiful,  careless,  mischievous. 

In  which  examples  do  you  add  " er  *'  and  "  est*'  f 
In  which  do  you  add  "  more''  and  "  most^''  or  "  less'' 


LESSON    TWENTY-SIXTH.  69 


and  "  least "  ?     Which  words  have  but  one  syllable  ? 
Which  have  more  than  one  ? 

Wo7'ds  of  one  syllable  usually  form  their  Compara- 
tive and  Superlative  degrees  by  adding  "gr'*  to  the 
positive  for  the  former^  and  "  est''  for  the  latter. 

Words  of  two  or  more  syllables  usually  form  their 
Comparative  and  Superlative  degrees  by  prefixing 
^' more''  or  ''less"  to  the  positive  for  the  former^  and 
"  most  '*or  "  least"  for  the  latter. 

General  Exercise. — Analyse  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  parse  the  words  :  — 

Dreams  have  their  variety. 

Vou  will  be  sure  of  a  reward. 

The  sisters  charm  with  their  lovely  songs, 

A  blunder  often  makes  a  precedent. 

Hope  is  the  blossom  of  happiness. 

The  blossoms  are  falling  from  the  trees. 

The  wind  sighs  plaintively  around  her  grave. 

The  raging  tempest  swept  away  everything  in  its  path. 

Heaven  opened  wide  her  golden  gates. 

The  wisest  method  has  been  pursued. 

The  children  were  studying  their  lesson  in  Arithmetic. 

The  Mexicans  were  defeated  at  Buena  Vista. 

The  buds  are  swelling  rapidly. 

The  vessel  had  not  arrived  yesterday. 

Mabel  is  the  younger  of  the  two  children. 


60  Greene's  introduction. 


1 


PAKT    II. 


I'W^/S^^AMA 


LESSON  XXVI. 

English  Grammar  treats  of  the  principles  of  the 
English  language. 

Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts : — Orthography, 
Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody, 

Ortliography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  the  let- 
ters which  represent  them,  and  the  combination  of 
letters  into  syllables  and  words. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation^ 
and  various  modifications  of  words. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  structure  of  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

ELEMENTARY    SOUNDS. 

Orthography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  the  let- 
ters which  represent  them,  and  the  combination  of 
letters  into  syllables  and  words. 

What  is  English  Grammar?     How  is  it  divided?     Of  what 
does  Orthography  treat  ?     Of  what  does  Etymology  treat  ?  Of 
what  does  Syntax  treat  ?    Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 
L   ■ 11=:-^  Ji 


LESSON    TWENTY-SEVENTH.  61 


ELEMENTARY   SOUNDS. 

An  elementary  sound  is  the  simplest  sound  in  the 
language ;  as,  a,  e,  h,  k. 

Note. — These  sounds,  about  forty  in  number,  can  be  appre- 
ciated only  when  represented  to  the  ear.  Let  the  learner  be 
taught  to  utter  them  distinctly,  and  he  will  then  understand 
the  following  classification : 

These  sounds  are  divided  into  three  classes :  — 
vocals^  subvocals,  and  aspirates. 

The  vocals  consist  of  pure  tone  only ;  as,  a,  e,  i, 
0,  u. 

The  subvocals  consist  of  tone  united  with  breath ; 
as,  6,  dy  Z,  m,  n,  r. 

The  aspirates  consist  of  pure  breath  only  ;  as,  ^,  ^, 

Exercise. — The  following  words  contain  the  diife- 
rent  elementary  sounds  in  the  language.  Utter  first 
the  word,  and  then  the  element,  printed  in  Italics, 

Vocals,  —  N-a-me,  f-a-r,  b-a-11,  a-t ;  m-e,  m-M;  f-i-ne,  p-i'-n; 
8-o-ld,  m-o-ve,  n-o-t ;  m-?^-te,  p-i^ll,  c-w-p ;  f-ow-nd. 

Suhvocah,  —  J5-at,  d-og,  g-o,j-ojy  l-ife^  m-an,  n-o,  Qo-ng,  ba-7, 
<A-ose,  t?-oice,  «?-ise,  ^/-es,  2-one,  a-;2ure. 

Aspirates, — jP-aith,  A-at,  ar-A:,  jt?-ine,  5-un,  ^ake,  ^7i-ink,  sA-one, 
cA-ur-ch,  wli'Qn. 


What  is  an  elementary  sound?  How  many  elementary 
sounds  are  there  ?  Into  what  classes  are  the  elementary  sounds 
divided?  What  are  the  vocals?  What  are  the  subvocals? 
What  are  the  aspirates  ? 


62  Greene's  introduction. 


In  the  following  examples,  point  out  — 

Five  Vocals. — Lake,  life,  pet,  sound,  grove. 
Six  Suhvocals. — Goat,  boy,  wife,  star,  jug,  note. 
Five  Aspirates, — Ilound,  kite,  thing,  sing,  whero. 


LESSON  XXVIII. 

LETTERS. 

A  letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  an  elemen- 
tary sound. 

The  English  alphabet  contains  twenty-six  letters  — 
A  a,  B  b,  C  c,  D  d,  E  e,  F  f,  G  g,  H  h,  I  i,  J  j,  K  k, 
L  1,  M  m,  N  n,  0  o,  P  p,  Q  q,  R  r,  S  s,  T  t,  U  u,  "V 
V,  W  w,  X  X,  Y  y,  Z  z. 

Those  letters  which  represent  vocals  are  called 
vowels.    They  are  «,  e^  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y 

Those  letters  which  represent  subvocals  and  aspi 
rates  are  called  consonants. 

The  consonants  are — • 

Subvocals — J,  d,  ^,  y,  /,  7?i,  n,  r,  v,  2. 

Aspirates — /,  A,  ky  c,  q,  p,  t,  s. 

X  is  a  subvocal  -when  it  is  equivalent  to  gs,  as  in  exist;  acT 
an  aspirate,  when  it  is  equivalent  to  ksj  as  in  zcax, 

W  and  Y  are  consonants  (subvocals)  when  they  precede  r 
vowel  in  the  same  syllable ;  as,  wiiWy  wet,  yes,  yew.  In  al 
other  cases  they  are  vowels;  as,  few,  lovely,  how,  boy. 


What  is  a  letter?  IIow  many  letters  are  there  in  the  English 
alphabet?  Name  them.  What  are  vowels?  Name  them 
What  are  consonants?    Name  them.  !' 


'i 


rf^ 


LESSON    TWENTY-NINTH.  63 

Equivalents  are  those  letters,  or  combinations  of 
letters  which  represent  the  same  sound ;  as,  n-a-me, 
g-c/y,  th-^y,  v-am,  g-aw-ge. 

•  A  variable  letter  is  one  which  represents  several 
different  sounds ;  as,  f-a-me,  f-a-r,  f-a-t,  h-a-11,  wh-a-t, 
li-a-r. 

A  sileyit  letter  is  one  wMch  has  no  sound;  as, 
pe-a-rl,  tho-ugh.  i/^ 

Exercise. — Tell  which  letters  are  vowels,  and  which 
are  consonants,  in  the  following  words :  — 

Name,  war,  come,  peace,  tree,  fish,  good,  live,  old,  sad, 
young,  wine,  said,  yet,  win,  new,  gay,  day. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  letters  represent  vocals, 
which  sub  vocals,  and  which  aspirates: — 

t,  r,  V,  a,  f,  g,  m,  c,  d,  k,  p,  o,  w,  s,  h,  y,  x,  1,  e,  j. 

Give  the  sounds  of  a  in  name,  war,  bat,  cabbage, 
fare,  all,  what ;  of  e  in  mete,  met,  they,  there,  her ; 
of  i  in  pine,  pin,  sir ;  of  2^  in  mute,  put,  but,  fur  ;  of 
0  in  mice,  sacrifice,  cat ;  of/  in  fare,  of;  of  g  in  give,  go, 
gem,  George;  of  r  in  read,  rude,  bar,  far  ;  of  s  in  sit, 
sin,  was,  does,  measure,  pleasure ;  of  a;  in  vrax,  example. 


LESSOIJ  XXIX. 

COMBINATIONS    OF    LETTERS. 

Two  or  more  vowels  may  unite ;  as,  s-ow-nd,  h-uoy. 
Two  or  more  consonants  may  unite;    as,  bl-e-nd, 
thr-ee. 

What  are  equivalents  ?     Give  examples.     What  is  a  variable 
letter?     Give  examples.     W^hat  is  a  silent  letter?     Give  exam- 
ples.    In  what  three  ways  may  sounds  be  united  ? 
-         -  "  -— rrd 


6i  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


A  consonant  may  unite  with  a  vowel ;  as,  ariy  no, 
did,  call, 

A  dijyhthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sylla- 
ble ;  as,  ou  in  sound,  oi  in  voice. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels  are 
sounded ;  as,  ou  in  thou. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  one  of  the 
vowels  is  silent ;  as,  a  in  heat* 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  syl- 
lable; as,  eaum  beauty, 

A  proper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  the  three  vowels 
are  sounded ;  as,  uoy,  in  buoy. 

An  improper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  one  or  two 
of  the  vowels  are  silent ;  as  the  ea  in  beauty,  the  ie  in 
adieu. 

Exercise. — Point  out  the  combinations  in  the  fol- 
lowing words.  Tell  whether  the  diphthongs  and  triph- 
thongs are  proper  or  improper  : — 

Fear,  pear,  voice,  sound,  pierce,  receive,  Europe,  people, 
view,  adieu,  beauty,  though,  shine,  when,  whip,  chip,  phrase, 
chaise,  architect,  motion,  partial,  option,  session. 


LESSON    XXX. 

SYLLABLES     AND     WORDS. 

A  syllable  is  a  letter  or  a  combination  of  letters 
uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as,  mat,  mat. 
ter,  ma-te-ri-al. 


1.^: 


What  is  a  diphthong  ?  What  is  a  proper  diphthong  ?  What  is 
an  improper  diphthong?  What  is  a  triphthong  ?  What  is  a 
proper  triphthong?  What  is  an  improper  triphthong  ?  What  is 
a  syllable  ? 


LESSON    THIRTIETH.  65 

The  essential  part  of  a  syllable  is  a  vowel. 

Note. — By  vowel  is  here  meant  a  vowel-souyid^  whether  repr^ 
sented  by  a  single  vowel,  a  diphthong,  or  a  triphthong. 

A  syllable  may  consist  — 

1.  Of  a  vowel ;  a5,  a-<}re,  ei-ther. 

2.  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  prefixed ;  as, 
6a-sis,  Sri-er,  ^Aree,  plithi-ai^. 

3.  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  affixed ;  as,  an, 
eZf,  inter-e^fe,  earths. 

4.  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  both  prefixed  and 
affixed;  as,  7i-oo-n,  ir-u-thj  tlir-u.-sU. 

A  word  consists  of  one  syllable  alone,  or  of  two  or 
more  syllables  united ;  as,  faith^  faith-ful. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllahle  ;  as, 
pen^  hoy^  care, 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyllable  ;  as, 
nature^  care-fuL 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyllable  ;  as, 
nat'U-ralj  care-ful-ness, 

A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  called  a  poly- 
syllable; as,  un-nat-u-ral,  con-soi-evAious-ness, 

A  word  in  no  way  derived  from  another,  is  a  primi. 
tive  word ;  as,  forniy  watch, 

A  word  formed  by  joining  to  a  primitive  some  letter 
or  syllable  to  modify  its  meaning,  is  a  derivative  word  ; 
as,  re-form,  watch-/wZ. 


1 


What  is  the  essential  part  of  a  syllable  ?  Of  what  may  a 
syllable  consist  ?  What  is  a  ward  ?  Whjat  is  a  monosyllable  7 
What  is  a  dissyllable?  What  is  a  word  of  three  syllaoles 
called  ?  What  is  a  polysyllable  ?  What  is  a  primitive  word  ? 
What  is  a  derivative  word  ?  ^ 


66  Greene's  introduction. 

A  word  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  simple 
words,  is  called  a  compound  word ;  as,  watchman, 
father-in-law* 

Exercise  FOR  THE  Slate. — Divide  the  following 
words  into  syllables  : — 

Detection,  inability,  commotion,  though,  relate,  unpremedi- 
tated, thoughtful. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  words  are  primitive, 
which  derivative^  and  which  compound : — 

Bri;;ht,  fair,  playful,  joyless,  income,  book-store,  cloud- 
capped,  ink,  form,  uniform,  housetop,  dreary. 

Form  derivative  words  from  the  following  primitives, 

and  draw  a  line  under  the  added  syllable  or  letter : — 

Hope,  fear,  peer,  weak,  form,  grace,  poet,  weep. 

Form  compound  words  by  joining  some  appropriate 

word  to  each  of  the  following : — 

Chest,  bank,  fire,  weed,  toll,  work,  land,  busy. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


LESSON  XXXI. 

DEFINITIOirS. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation, 
and  various  modifications  of  words. 

A  word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea,  and  is  either  spoken 
or  written. 


-■§ 


What  is  a  compound  word?    Of  what  does  Etymology  treat? 
What  is  a  word  ?     «» 


LESSON    THIRTY-FIRST.  67 


Words  are  divided  into  eight  classes,  called  Parts 
of  Speech.  j 

The  Parts  of  Speech  are,  the  Noun,  the  Adjective, 
the  Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Adverb,  the  Preposition, 
the  Conjunction,  and  the  Interjection. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object ;  as,  peach,  Frank ^ 
Salem. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun ;  as,  wise,  sweet,  this. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun  ;  as,  /,  he,  who. 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state;  as,  he,  run,  sleep),  is  written. 

An  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  another  adverb  ;  as,  slowly,  first,  far. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  other  word ;  as, 
above,  with,  into. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  either 
words,  phrases,  or  propositions ;  as,  and,  hut,  or. 

The  interjection  is  used  to  express  some  emotion  of 
the  mind ;  as,  0  !  alas  !  ah  ! 


How  are  words  divided?  How  many  parts  of  speech  are 
there?  What  are  they?  What  is  a  noun?  An  adjective? 
A  pronoun  ?  A  verb  ?  What  is  an  adverb  ?  What  is  a  pre- 
position ?    What  is  a  conjunction  ?    What  is  an  interjection  ? 


168  Greene's  introduction. 


LESSON  XXXII, 


NOUNS. 


A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object ;  as,  houses  trecj 
Boston^  goodness. 

Remark  1.  The  word  ^^  object  ^^  is  here  used  to  denote  every 
species  of  existence,  whether  material  or  immaterial. 

Rem.  2.  The  name  of  anything  which  has,  or  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  an  independent  existence,  is  a  noun.  Hence,  the 
name  of  a  quality,  taken  alone,  or  apart  from  any  object,  is  a 
noun  ;  as,  brightness,  smoothness. 

Nouns  are  divided  into  two  classes,  Proper  and 
Common, 

A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object ; 
as,  James^  Erie, 

A  common  noun  is  the  name  which  applies  to  each 
individual  of  a  class  of  objects ;  as,  man^  boy^  house. 

Rem.  Under  the  head  of  common  nouns  are  commonly  reck- 
oned Collective^  Abstract^  and  Verbal  nouns. 

A  collective  noun  is  one  which,  in  the  singular,  denotes  more 
than  one  object;  as,  army ^  family,  jlock. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  an  action,  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  goodii^ss, 
virtue,  icisdom,  movement. 

A  verbal  noun  is  a  participle  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  lie  was 
convicted  of  stealing,*^ 


What  is  a  noun?  What  does  the  word  "object"  denote? 
When  is  the  name  of  a  quality  a  noun  ?  How  many  classes 
of  nouns  are  there  ?  What  is  a  proper  noun  ?  What  is  a  com- 
mon noun  ?  What  is  a  collective  noun  ?  What  is  an  abstract 
noun?   What  is  a  verbal  noun? 


LESSON    THIRTY-SECOND.  69 

Any  phrase  or  group  of  words  used  to  represent  an  idea 
which  oan  be  considered  alone,  is  of  the  nature  of  a  noun  or 
substantive ;  as,  "  To  he  good  is  to  he  JiappyJ* 

Exercise.    (1.) 
Select  the  nouns  from  the  following  examples : — 

Beattie,  the  son  of  a  Scottish  farmer,  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Aberdeen. 

The  father  of  Michael  Bruce  was  a  weaver  in  Scotland. 
Cyprus  is  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Tell  which  of  the  nouns  above  are  common,  and 
which  are  proper.     Why  ?  • 

Write  a  sentence  containing  two  common  and  two 
proper  nouns. 

Exercise.     (2.)  * 

Point  out  the  collective,  abstract,  and  verbal  nouns 
in  the  following  examples  : — 

The  hunters  discovered  a  large  herd  of  buffaloes. 
The  school  was  dismissed  at  twelve  o'clock.        '' 
His  greatness  was  excelled  only  by  his  goodness. 
Lying  is  a  degrading  vice. 
We  should  be  forward  in  aiding  the  weak. 

Change  the  following  adjectives  into  abstract  nouns : 

Faithful,  hopeful,  rough,  brittle,  sour,  better. 

*  Exercises  marked  (2)  are  to  be  omitted  the  first  time  going 
through  the  book. 


J 


70  GREENERS    INTRODUCTION. 


LESSON  XXXIII. 

To  ncuns  belong  Person^  Number^  Gender^  and 
Case, 

PERSON. 

Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
shows  its  relation  to  the  speaker. 

Rem.  a  noun  or  pronoun  must  represent  either  the  speaker 
himself,  the  person  spoken  to  by  the  speaker,  or  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of  by  the  speaker.  Hence  the  three  relations  to 
the  speaker,  called  person. 

There  are  three  persons  —  the  firsts  second^  and 
tliird. 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker ;  as,  "  7,  the 
commander^  issue  this  general  order.'' 

The  second  person  denotes  the  person  spoken  to ; 
as,  "  Children^  obey  your  parents." 

The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spo- 
ken of;  as,  ^'Thomas  did  come.''  ^' The  harvest  ia 
abundant." 

Exercise. 

Tell  the  person  of  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the 
following  examples : — 
Nero  was  a  tyrant. 
Children,  obey  your  parents. 
The  ferryman  took  us  safely  across  the  river. 
Babylon,  how  art  thou  fallen  1 
Thou  art  the  man. 
My  brothers  delight  in  surf-bathing. 
I,  Paul,  myself,  beseech  you. 

What  belong  to  nouns?     What  is  person?     What  must  a  i 
noun  or  pronoun  represent?     How  many  persons  are  there? 
I   What  does  the  first  person  denote?     The  second?     The  third?  ' 


Ll 


LESSON    THIRTY-FOURTH.  71 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

NUMBER. 

Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  which  distin- 
guishes one  object  from  more  than  one. 

Nouns  have  two  numbers :  the  singular  and  the 
plural. 

The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  object ;  as, 
/  horse,  river,  mountain. 

The  plural  number  denotes  more  than  one  object ; 
as,  horses,  rivers,  mountains. 

The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  — 

1.  By  adding  5,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound  that 
can  unite  with  s  ;  as,  hookf  hooks;  tree^  trees, 

2.  By  adding  65,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound  that 
cannot  unite  with  s ;  as,  box,  boxes ;  church,  churches. 

The  plural  of  nouns  is  irregularly  formed  in  various 
ways. 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  i  and  add  es ;  as,  fly,  files;  berry,  berries ;  body,  bodies. 
If  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  y  is  not  changed ;  as,  boy,  boys  ; 
toy,  toys  ;  valley,  valleys, 

2.  Some  nouns  ending  inland  ye  change  these  terminations 
to  ve,  and  add  s  ;  as,  leaf,  leaves ;  loaf,  loaves  •  wife,  wives.  So 
also  with  calf,  half,  sheaf,  shelf  life,  thief  wharf,  wolf,  elf  and 
knife.  Other  nouns  iny*andye  form  the  plural  regularly;  as, 
gulf,  gulfs ;  roof,  roofs;  fife,  fifes. 

What  is  number  ?  How  many  numbers  have  nouns  ?  What 
is  the  singular  number  ?  What  is  the  plural  ?  How  is  the 
plural  of  nouns  regularly  formed  ?  Give  the  rule  for  nouns 
ending  in  y.    Iny*andye. 


72  GREENERS    INTRODUCTION, 


3.  Nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es  ;  as* 
potato i  potatoes ;  cargo,  cargoes.  If  preceded  by  a  vo\Yel,  s  is 
added;  as,  folio,  folios;  cameo,  cameos. 

4.  The  following  plurals  are  very  irregular :  —  Child,  chil- 
dren; man,  men;  woman,  women;  brother,  brothers,  or  breth- 
ren; mouse,  mice;  die,  dice  (dies,  stamps);  tooth,  teeth;  foot, 
feet;  ox,  oxen;  goose,  geese;  penny,  pence,  ot pennies. 

5.  Proper  nouns,  most  abstract  nouns,  and  nouns  denoting 
substance,  have  no  plural ;  as,  Providence,  goodness,  wood, 
gold.  Sometimes,  however,  we  say,  **  tlie  Stuarts,^^  "  the 
Johnsons.'^ 

6.  In  compound  words,  if  the  principal  word  is  placed  first, 
it  is  varied  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  cowr^^-martial,  50?w-in-law ; 
but  if  placed  last,  the  final  word  is  changed ;  as,  ^aWfuls, 
hsLudfuls,  &c. 

7.  Letters,  marks,  and  figures  are  pluralizod  by  adding'.?; 
as,  the  a*5,  the  9'5,  the  -\-'s. 

8.  Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural;  as,  tongs,  riches, 
scisso7's,  oats,  embers,  ashes,  belloics,  draicers. 

9.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers ;  as,  dice,  sheep, 
trout,  dozen,  sioine,  vermin,  hose,  yoke. 

10.  Nouns  derived  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  ori- 
ginal plurals;  as,  automaton,  automata;  axis,  axes;  bandit, 
banditti;  beau,  beaux;  cherub,  cherubim ;  focus,  foci ;  memo- 
randum, meinoranda;  nebula,  nebidce;  radium,  radii;  stratum, 
strata. 

Exercise.     (1.) 

Write  the  plural  of  tlie  following  nouns,  and  give 
the  rule  for  the  termination : — 

Box,  horse,  glove,  rose,  torch,  grass,  oak,  watch. 

Give  the  rule  for  nouns  ending  in  o.  Name  eight  nouns 
which  have  very  irregular  plurals.  What  kind  of  nouns  have 
no  plural?  Give  the  rule  for  compound  words ?  What  plu- 
rals take  ^s  ?  Give  five  nouns  used  only  in  the  plural.  Five 
alike  in  both  numbers.     Five  plurals  from  foreign  languages. 


i 


LESSON    THIRTY-FOURTH.  73 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  nouns  in  the  singular 

number : — 

The is  a  noble  animal, 

is  a  virtue. 

lie  has  met  his . 


The  sun  shines  upon  the -, 

is  declared. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  plural  nouns  : — 

take  to  themselves  wings. 

The are  very  lofty 

The were  well  attended. 

Henry  has  lost  his . 

I  am  delighted  with . 

Exercise.    (2.) 

Give  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns,  with  the 
rules  for  their  formation  : — 

Lady,  day,  leaf,  hoof,  hero,  ox,  tooth,  spoonful,  x,  solemn, 
focus,  fox,  star,  ally,  alley,  sheep. 

Fill  the  following  blanks — 
1.  "With  proper  nouns : — 

descended  the  Alps. 


I  visited  ■ 


•  crossed  the  Delaware. 


2.  With  collective,  abstract,  or  verbal  nouns  :- 

on  the  water  is  pleasant. 

The was  disbanded. 

The was  scattered  by  the  wolves. 

is  a  vice. 

goeth  before  a  fall. 

Our depends  on  ourselves. 

Give  the  number  of  each  noun  in  the  exercise. 


74  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


LESSON   XXXV. 

GENDER. 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  in  regard  to 
^ex. 

There  are  three  genders  —  the  masculine^  the  femi- 
nine^ and  the  neuter. 

Nouns  which  denoie  males,  are  of  the  masculine 
gender;  as,  man,  king,  hero. 

Nouns  which  denote  feynales^  are  of  the  feminine 
gender;  as,  woman,  queen,  heroine. 

Nouns  which  denote  objects  neither  male  nor  fe- 
male, are  of  the  neuter  gender ;  as,  tree,  rock,  paper. 

Rem. — Some  nouns  denote  either  male  or  female ;  as,  parent, 
child,  cousin.  These  are  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender; 
but  as  the  gender  must  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  and 
may  generally  be  determined  by  the  connection,  the  distinction 
is  scarcely  necessary. 

There  are  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the  sexes  : — 

1.  By  using  different  words  ;  as,  bachelor,  maid ;  hoy,  girl ; 
brother,  sister  ;  father,  mother, 

2.  By  different  terminations;  as,  count,  countess;  actor,  ac- 
tress :  administrator,  administratrix  ;  hero,  heroine, 

3.  By  prefixes  and  suffixes;  as,  land-Zorc?,  land-ZacZy;  gen- 
iXeman,  gQuilQwoman ;  Ae-goat,  ^/ie-goat;  Twan-servant,  maid- 
servant. 

What  is  gender?  How  many  genders  are  there?  What 
nouns  are  of  the  masculine  gender?  Of  the  feminine?  Of  the 
neuter  ?  What  is  said  of  the  common  gender  ?  What  three 
methods  of  distinguishing  the  sexes  ? 


LESSON    THIRTY-SIXTH.  75 


Exercise. 
Tell  the  gender  of  the  following  nouns  : — 
Sailor,  cap,  lioness,  captain,  nun,  widow,  brother,    sister, 
bridge,  priest,  wizard,  countess. 

Give  the  feminine  of — 

Man,  abbot,  hero,  tiger,  heir,  prophet,  male,  widower,  hus- 
band, host,  master,  king. 

The  masculine  of — 

Empress,  songstress,  mother,  sister,  actress. 
Fill  these  blanks,  the  first  two  with  common  nouns 
in  the  masculine  gender;  the  next  two  with  proper 
nouns,  one  masculine  and  one  feminine ;  the  next  two 
with  neuter  nouns  : — 

is  patient. 

• '  reigns  king  of  beasts. 

was  a  distinguished  poet. 

entertained  her  guests  with  grace. 


Ella  has  lost  her . 

Harold  is  reading  Cicero's  - 


LESSON  XXXVI. 


CASE. 


Oase  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to 
other  words. 

There  are  three  cases — ^the  nominative^  the  vcases- 
sive,  and  the  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  the  simplest  form  of  the 


What  is  case  ?    How  many  cases  are  there  ?    What  is  the 
nominative  case  ? 


76  Greene's  introduction. 

I  noun,  and  is  commonly  the  subject  of  a  proposition  ; 
as,   Q-eorge  speaks  ;  the  door  was  shut. 

The  possessive  case  denotes  the  relation  of  property 
or  possession  ;  as,  David's  harp. 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  follows  a  transitive  verb, 
or  a  preposition,  it  is  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
Thomas  opened  his  knife ;  the  bird  sat  on  the  tree, 

FORMATION   OF   THE   POSSESSIVE. 

The  possessive  singular  of  nouns  is  regularly 
formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  ( ' )  and  the  letter  8 
to  the  nominative ;  as,  mans,  Oalvin's. 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe  only  is 
added ;  as,  hoys\  ladies'.  But  the  apostrophe  and  s 
are  both  added  when  it  ends  in  any  other  letter ;  as, 
men's,  women's,  brethren's. 

Rem. — The  possessive  case  is  known  by  its  form.  But  the 
forms  of  the  nominative  and  objective  are  alike,  and  must  be 
determined  by  their  relation  to  other  words. 

DECLENSION   OF   NOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  its  variatibn  to  denote 
number  and  case. 

Examples. 

1.    Boy. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nbm.                  Boy.  Boys. 

Pass.                    Boy's.  Boys'. 

Obj.                    Boy.  Boys. 


What  is  the  possessive  case  ?  The  objective  ?  How  is  the 
possessive  regularly  formed  ?  Give  the  rule  for  the  possessive 
plural.  Which  case  is  known  by  its  form  ?  What  is  the  de- 
clension of  a  noun  ?     Decline  Boy. 


-^d^ 


LESSON   THIBTY-^XTH. 


7T 


Nom. 
Foss, 
Obj. 


Nom. 

Poss. 
Obj. 


2.  Fly. 
Singular, 

Fly. 

Fly's. 

Fly. 

3.  John. 
Singular, 

John. 

John's. 

John. 


Plural, 
Flies. 
Flies'. 
Flies. 


Plural, 
wanting. 


MODEL   FOR   PARSING   A   NOUN. 

"  The  dog  baiks." 
Dog  is  a  (1)  noun;  it  is  the  name  of  an  object. 

(2)  common;  it  is  the  name  of  each  individual  of  a 

class  of  objects. 

(3)  third  person  ;  it  is  spoken  of. 

(4)  singular  number ;  it  denotes  but  one. 

(5)  masculine  gender  ;  it  is  the  name  of  a  male. 

(6)  nominative  case  ;  it  is  the  subject  of  a  proposition. 

(7)  Rule  L     A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject 

of  a  proposition,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Exercise. 

Parse  the  nouns  in  the  follovring  examples :  * — 

England  was  invaded  by  the  Normans. 

The  rain  descended. 

The  forests  disappear. 

I  have  seen  Emily's  pet  fawn. 


Decline  Fly.    John.     Parse  dog  in  the  sentence,  "  The  Jog 
I  barks." 

*  The  rules  may  be  omitted  the  first  time  going  through. 


78  qreene's  introduction. 


Theodore's  horse  is  lame. 
Rollo  went  into  the  garden. 
,  The  mountains  raise  thoir  heads. 
Florence  loved  little  Paul. 
Rollo  sat  by  his  fathers  sido 


/ 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

ADJECTIVES. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a 
noun  ;  as,  ''  a  good  scholar." 

Adjectives  are  divided  into  two  classes  —  limiting 
and  qualifying, 

A  limiting  adjective  is  used  to  define  or  restrict  the 
meaning  of  a  noun,  without  expressing  any  of  its 
qualities ;  as,  the  house,  tliose  men. 

A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  which  limits  the 
meaning  of  a  noun,  by  denoting  some  property  or 
quality;  as,  '^a  virtuous  man;"  "a  large  tree." 

Rem.  1. — To  this  class  of  adjectives  belong  the  participles 
which  have  the  signification  of  the  verb,  and  the  construction 
of  the  adjective.  When  the  participle  is  placed  before  the 
noun  which  it  modifies,  it  is  called  2k participial  adjective;  as, 
" the  inking  sun"  When  it  is  placed  after  the  noun  to  which 
it  relates,  it  is  called  a  participle;  as,  **tJie  sun  rising  in  the 
east,'' 

Rem.  2. — Any  phrase  or  group  of  words  added  to  a  noun  to 
limit  its  application  or  restrict  its  meaning,  is  of  the  nature  of 
an  adjective  ;  as,  "  The  people  of  the  United  States  of  America.'* 

What  ic  an  adjective?  How  are  adjectives  divided ?  What 
is  a  limiting  adjective?  What  is  a  qualifying  adjective  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  participle  ? 


LESSON    THIRTY-SEVENTH.  79 

Limiting  adjectives  are  divided  into  three  classes  —  articles^ 
pronominal  adjectives,  and  numeral  adjectives. 

The  articles  are  a  or  an,  and  the. 

The  is  called  the  definite  article,  because  it  points  out  some 
particular  object;  as,  ^^the  sun  J* 

Ay  or  an,  is  called  the  indefinite  article,  because  it  docs  not 
point  out  any  particular  object ;  as,  "  a  pen ;''  "  ari  orchard." 

An  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound,  and  a  before  a  consonant 
sound;  "a  union,"  "an  hour,"  "a  ewer,"  "an  eagle." 

Pronominal  adjectives  are  those  which,  without  the  use  of  the 
article,  may  represent  a  noun  when  understood ;  as,  "  This 
(book)  is  mine  ;  that  is  yours." 

Rem. — The  principal  pronominal  adjectives  are : — This,  that, 
these,  those,  former,  latter,  which,  what,  each,  every,  either, 
neither,  some,  one,  none,  any,  all,  such,  much,  both,  few,  first, 
last,  little,  many,  own,  same,  several,  sundry,  enough. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  those  which  express  number;  aSj 
one,  two,  third,  fourth. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into  cardinal,  which  denote 
hmo  many;  as,  one,  two,  three,  &c. ;  and  ordinal,  which  show 
which  one  of  a  series;  2l9,  first,  second,  third,  &c. 

Exercise. 

Tell  the  kind  of  adjectives  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : — 

These  scholars  are  very  studious. 
Anne  is  reading  Roman  history. 
I  saw  a  large  flock  of  birds. 


Into  what  class  are  limiting  adjectives  divided  ?  What  are 
the  articles?  What  is  said  of  ''thef'  Of  "a"  or  ''an'*f 
When  is  "a?i"  used?  When  "a";  What  are  pronominal 
adjectives?  What  are  the  principal  pronominal  adjectives? 
What  are  numeral  adjectives?    How  divided  ? 


80  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


Two  of  the  boys  arrived  punctually. 
\)i\  Kane  explored  the  Arctic  regions. 
Albert  took  the  first  premium. 
Few  of  the  committee  were  present. 
I  am  reading  a  very  interesting  book. 

Fill   the  blanks   in    the   following   examples  with 
adjectives,  and  tell  the  kind  of  each : — 

men  sit  at  their  doors. 

The wind  breathes  gently  forth. 

events  cast  their  shadows  before. 

The  traveller  crossed  the sea. 

The  nest  contained robins. 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison — the  posi- 
tive, the  comparative,  and  superlative. 

The  positive  simply  denotes  a  quality  without  com- 
parison ;  as,  righteous,  pleasant. 

The  comparative  shows  that  one  of  two  objects  pos- 
sesses a  quality  in  a  higher  or  lower  degree  than  the 
other;  as,  "This  tree  is  taller  than  that;"  "Theo- 
dore is  less  industrious  than  his  brother.'* 

The  superlative  shows  that  one  of  several  objects 

How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there?  What  does 
the  positive  degree  denote ?  The  comparative?  The  superla- 
tive? 


-J 


LESSON    THIRTY-EIGHTH. 


81 


referred  to,  possesses  a  quality  in  the  highest  or  lowest 
degree,  when  compared  with  all  the  rest ;  as,  "  The 
pine  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  grove ;''  "  This  boy  is 
the  least  studious  of  all  the  scholars/' 

The  comparative  of  monosyllables  is  regularly 
formed  by  adding  r,  or  er^  and  the  superlative  by 
adding  st  or  est  to  the  positive  ;  as,  wise^  wiser^  wisest : 
bold,  bolder,  boldest. 

The  comparative  of  most  adjectives  of  more  than 
one  syllable,  is  formed  by  prefixing  more  or  less,  and 
the  superlative,  by  prefixing  most  or  least  to  the  posi- 
tive ;  as,  industrious,  more  industrious,  most  indus- 
trious;  dutiful,  less  dutiful,  least  dutiful. 


The   following   adjectives   are 

compared    irregi 

larly:  — 

Positive, 

Comparative, 

Superlative, 

Good. 

Better. 

Best. 

Bad  or  ill. 

Worse. 

Worst. 

Much  or  many. 

More. 

Most. 

Little. 

Less  or  lesser. 

Least. 

Far. 

Farther. 

Farthest. 

Near. 

Nearer. 

Nearest  or  next. 

Late. 

Later. 

Latest  or  last. 

Old. 

Older  or  elder. 

Oldest  or  eldest. 

Exercise. 

Give  the  degree  of  comparison  of  the  following 
adjectives : — 

How  are  adjectives  regularly  compared?  How  are  adjec- 
tives of  more  than  one  syllable  usually  compared  ?  Compare 
good,  bad,  ill,  much  many,  little,  far,  near,  late,  old. 


82  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


Wild,  colder,  mildest,  innocent,  most  comfortable,  frail,  least 
active. 

Compare —  • 
Brave,  strong,  honorable,  useful,  thrifty,  considerable,  serene. 

MODEL   FOR   PARSING   AN   ADJECTIVE. 

"  The  faithful  man  will  be  rewarded." 
Faithful  is  (1)  an  adjective;  it  limits  or  qualifies  a  noun. 

(2)  qualifying  ;  it  denotes  a  quality. 

(3)  positive  degree;    it   expresses   quality  without 

comparison — compared yaiVA/wZ,  morefaithfuly 
most  faithful. 

(4)  it  belongs  to  *'  man." 

(5)  Rule  V. — An  adjective  or  a  participle  belongs 

to  some  noun  or  pronoun. 

Parse  the  adjectives  in  the  following  examples : — 

There  is  no  prouder  grave. 
His  deeds  have  rendered  him  immortal. 
They  toiled  through  the  Syrian  desert. 
Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  kings. 

The  breaking  waves  dashed  high. 
On  a  stern  and  rock-bound  coast ; 
And  the  woods,  against  a  stormy  sky, 
Their  giant  branches  tossed. 


LESSON    THIRTtc'-NINTH.  88 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

PRONOUNS. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun ;  as,  "  The  farmer  ploughs  his  field ;  he  reaps 
his  wheat,  and  gathers  it  into  his  barn.'* 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes — personal, 
relative,  and  interrogative. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent  a 
noun,  and  to  show  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second  or 
third  person. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  — 

7,  plural  wCf  of  the  first  person. 
Thou,  or  yoUj  plural  ^e  or  yow,  of  the  second  person. 
He,  plural  thei/,  of  the  third  person,  masculine. 
She,  plural  thei/,  of  the  third  person,  feminine. 
//,  plural  they,  of  the  third  person,  neuter. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  — 

Myself,  ourselves  (first  person) ;  thyself,  yourselves  (second 
person) ;  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves  (third  person). 

To  pronouns  belong  Person,  Numher,  Grender^  and 
Case. 


What  is  a  pronoun  ?  How  are  they  divided  ?  What  is  a 
personal  pronoun  ?  Name  the  personal  pronouns.  Name  the 
compound  personal  pronouns.  What  modifications  belong  fc* 
personal  pronouns  ?     Decline  /,  thou,  he,  she,  it. 


p — — — . — —    _*-' 

84           geebne's  introduction. 

DECLENSION   OF   PERSONAL 

PRONOUNS. 

The  personal  pronouns  are 

thus  declined : — 

1 

First  Person. 

1 

Nom, 
Poss, 
0^, 

Singular, 
I. 

My  or  mine. 
Me. 

Plural,                          \ 
We. 

Our  or  ours. 
Us. 

Second  Person. 

Norn, 
Poss, 

OlQ. 

Singular, 
Thou. 

Thy  or  thine. 
Thee. 

Plural, 
Ye  or  you. 
Your  or  yours. 
You. 

Third  Person. 

Masculine, 

Nam, 
Poss, 
OIq, 

Singular, 
He. 
His. 
Him. 

Plural, 
They. 

Their  or  theirs. 
Them.                         j 

iHiRD  Person. 

Feminine, 

Kom 
Poss. 
ObJ. 

Singular, 
She. 

Her  or  hers. 
Her. 

Plural, 
They. 

Their  or  theirs. 
Them. 

Third  Person. 

Neuter, 

Nbm, 
Poss, 
Ohj, 

Singular, 
It. 
Its. 
It. 

Plural, 
They. 

Their  <yr  theirs. 
Them. 

First  Person. 

Norn, 
Poss, 
Obf. 

Singular, 
Myself. 

Plural, 
Ourselves. 

Myself. 

Ourselves. 

LESSON    THIRTY-NINTH. 


86 


Nom, 


Second  Person. 
Singular, 
Thyself. 


Plural. 
Yourselves. 


Ohj. 


Thyself. 


Yoiarselves. 


Third  Person. 


Singular,  Plural. 

Masculine.     Feminine.  Neuter. 

Kom,         Himself.        Herself.  Itself. 

Poss.         .  .  .      Themselves. 

Ohj.  Himself.        Herself.  Itself. 

Rem.  1. — Of  the  possess! ves,  my,  thy,  her,  our,  your,  their,  are 
used  when  the  noun  is  expressed  ;  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours, 
and  theirs,  when  it  is  understood;  and  the  latter  must  be 
changed  to  the  former  whenever  the  noun  is  supplied.  "  That 
book  is  yours;  this  is  mine.'^  "  That  book  is  your  book;  this 
is  my  book.'' 

Rem.  2. — When  mine,  thine,  &c.,  are  used  as  in  the  above 
example,  they  seem  to  perform  a  double  office ;  first,  to  repre- 
sent the  speaker,  hearer,  or  person  spoken  of,  as  a  possessor ; 
and,  secondly,  like  other  limiting  or  qualifying  words,  when 
the  noun  is  understood,  to  represent  or  stand  for  that  noun,  not 
as  a  pronoun  does,  but  as  an  adjective.  Thus  we  say,  "  This 
[book]  is  an  arithmetic ;  that  [book]  is  a  geography/'  "  The 
violent  [persons]  take  it  by  force."  "  Mine  [my  task]  was  an 
easy  task."  Properly,  neither  of  the  above  words  is  a  noun. 
The  first  three  are  adjectives  used  to  limit  the  noun  understood, 
which  follows  them,  and  the  last  a  personal  pronoun  in  the 
possessive  case,  used  to  limit  the  noun  task,  understood.  If  it 
is  ever  proper  to  say  that  thi^,  that,  or  violent  are  used  as  nouns, 
it  is  equally  so  of  the  word  mine,  not  in  its  pronominal,  but  in 
its  adjective  office. 


When  are  my,  thy,  &c.,  used?    When  mintf   thins,   &o.T 
Explain  the  use  of  mine,  thine,  &c. 


186  qreene's  introduction. 


MODEL   FOR   PARSING  A   PERSONAL   PRONOUN. 
**  The  boys  have  lost  their  boat." 
Their  is  (1)  a  pronoun;  it  stands  for  a  noun. 

(2)  personal ;  it  is  used  to  represent  a  noun  and  tell 

its  person. 

(3)  it  represents  horjs  for  its  antecedent. 

(4)  declined  (sing.)  Norn.,  he ;  poss.,  his ;  ohj.y  him ; 

(plural)  Nom.,  they;  poss.y  their  or  theirs;  obj.^ 
them. 

(5)  it  is  of  the  third  person ^  plural  mimhery  viasculine 

gender,  because  its  antecedent  is. 

(6)  Rule  III. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antece- 

dent in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

(7)  possessive  case,  and  limits  boat. 

(8)  Rrile  VII. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  an- 

other noun  by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in 
the  possessive  case. 

Parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  examples : — 
The  king  found  himself  in  great  distress.  C>^'\ 
Louisa  has  lost  her  gold  pencil.  '   , . 
Arnold  betrayed  his  country.    '    ,; 
I  wish  to  visit  them/  /  '  -  >  /    I 

We'are  going  into  the  country.  /  / 

Granville  will  bring  it' to  me.*    /J  ■/'  1/  <  '  * 

Hast  thou*a  star  to  guide  thy  path  {'^'•'■'^-H^  /^  I'! j 

Parse  "  their,''  as  in  the  model. 


LESSON    FORTIETH.  87 

LESSON  XL. 

RELATIVE  AND  INTERROaATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent  a  pre- 
ceding noun  called  the  antecedent^  and  to  connect 
with  it  a  dependent  proposition ;  as,  "  Those  who  wish 
f or  favor Sy  must  assist  others." 

The  relatives  are  who^  which,  that,  and  zvhat. 

Who  is  used  to  represent  persons ;  which  and  what 
to  represent  things ;  and  that  to  represent  both  per- 
sons and  things 

What  is  both  an  adjective  and  a  relative;  p,  "  He 
gave  me  what  books  I  needed;  —  that  is,  "He  gave 
me  those  books  which  I  needed.** 

Rem. —  What  is  both  a  relative  pronoun  and  a  limiting  adjec- 
tive, and  is  equivalent  to  that  or  those,  which.  When  the  ante- 
cedent is  expressed,  what  should  be  parsed  (1)  as  an  adjective ; 
(2)  as  a  relative  propoun ;  as,  "  He  gave  me  what  books  I 
wanted."  When  the  antecedent  is  omitted,  the  indefinite  noun 
"things"  may  be  supplied,  and  thus  the  case  is  always  as 
above  ;  or^  it  may  be  taken  (1)  as  an  adjective  used  as  a  noun  ; 
it  is  then  itself  the  antecedent ;  (2)  as  a  relative  relating  to  itself 
as  antecedent ;  as,  "  He  gave  me  what  I  wanted." 

The  compound  relatives  are  whoever,  whosevevy 
whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever. 


What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ?  What  are  the  relatives  ?  What 
arc  they  severally  used  to  represent  ?  What  is  said  of  the  rela- 
tive "  what "  ?  To  what  is  it  equivalent  when  the  noun  is 
understood  ?  How  should  it  be  parsed  ?  Name  the  compound 
relatives. 


88  Greene's  introduction. 


The  interrogative  pronouns  are  used  in  asking 
questions.     They  are,  who^  which^  and  what. 

The  noun  for  which  the  interrogative  stands  is 
found  in  the  answer;  as,  "Who  came?"  Ans. — 
Qeorge 

Rem.  2.--TF7i^c7^  and  W^a^  commonly  refer  to  tilings^  while 
who  always  refers  to  persons.  The  former,  when  followed  by 
a  noun,  are  interrogative  adjectives;  as,  "  What  lessons  have 
we  to-day?" 

DECLENSION   OF   RELATIVE   AND   INTERROGATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 


Singular  and  Plural.        S 

ingular  aiid  Plural 

Nbm, 

Who. 

Which. 

Poss, 

Whose. 

Whose. 

Old. 

Whom. 

Which. 

What  and  tJiat  are  not  declined ;  whoever  and  whichever,  who- 
soever and  whichsoever f  are  declined  like  the  simple  pronouns 
icho  and  which. 

MODELS. 

**  The  man  who  is  attached  to  religion,  may  be  relied  on." 
Who  is  (1)  9,  pronoun  ;  it  takes  the  place  of  the  noun  man, 

(2)  relative;  it  represents  the  noun  man  as  its  antece- 

dent, and  connects  with  it  the  proposition  **  who 
is  attached  to  religion." 

(3)  declined — Norn.,  who  ;  poss.^  whose ;  ohj.,  whom. 

(4)  third  person,  sing,  number y  masc.  gender.   Rule  III. 

(5)  nominative  case,  and  is  the  subject  of  the  proposi- 

tion, **  who  is  attached,"  &c.     Rule  I. 

What  are  interrogative  pronouns  ?  Name  them.  Where  is 
the  noun  for  which  the  interrogative  stands  ?  When  are  tvhich 
and  what  interrogative  adjectivBS?  Decline  the  pronouns  ic7io 
and  ichirh.  What  is  said  of  the  other  relatives  ?  Parse 
"who,"  as  in  the  model. 


LESSON    FORTIETH.  89 

"  I  gave  him  wTiat  he  wanted/' 
What  is  (1)  a  relative  pronoun,  used  also  as  an  adjective. 

(2)  as  an  adjcctivey  it  belongs  to  "  things"  understood,  or 

may  be  used  as  the  noun  **  things/'  and  is  equi- 
valent to  those.     Rule  V. 

(3)  as  a  7'elative,  it  relates  to  *'  things,"  or  to  itself 

used  as  the  noun  "  things,"  and  is  equivalent  to 
which. 

(4)  as  antecedent^  it  is  of  the  third  person,  plural  num- 

ber, neuter  gender,  objective   case,  and   is  the 
object  of  gave.    Rule  VIII. 

(5)  as  relative,  it  is  of  the  third  person,  plural  number, 

neuter  gender  (Rule  III.),  and  is  governed  by 
wanted.    Rule  VIII. 
Note. — These  models,  with  a  slight  change,  answer  foi  the 
interrogative  pronouns  ? 

Exercise.    (1.) 
Parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  examples  :— 
My  father,  whom  I  loved,  is  dead.  j 

He  best  can  bear  reproof,  who  'merits  praise.  / 

Look  at  that  beautiful  butterfly,  which  is  sporting  so  gaily 
in  the  sunshine. 

The  vessel  in  which  I  embarked,  was  wrecked. 

I  could  not  discover  what  he  came  for. 

What  have  you  done  to  him  ? 

Who  have  visited  the  panorama  ? 

The  man  that  attacked  you,  is  arrested. 

Exercise.     (2.) 

Rem. — "  That"  is  a  relative  when  who,  which,  or  whom  can 
be  used  in  its  place.  It  is  an  adjective  when  a  noun  can  bo 
placed  after  it;  as,  '*  That  (glove)  is  mine."  In  all  other  cases 
it  18  a  conjunction. 

Parse  "  what."     What  remark  upon  the  word  "  that?  " 


90  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

Tell  what  part  of  speech  ''  that "  is  in  the  following 
examples : — 

Give  me  that  knife. 

Do  you  like  the  horse  that  you  bought? 

The  lawyer  that  I  consulted,  has  left  the  city. 

That  is  my  eldest  sister. 

How  large  that  melon  is  I 

I  think  that  Cornelia  will  go. 

The  strange  man  that  Richard  met,  was  a  gipsy. 

Eveline  has  gone  to  hear  that  celebrated  singer. 

Horace  hopes  that  he  shall  enter  college  next  year. 

That  picture  that  you  admired,  is  sold. 

I  expect  that  that  machine  that  you  examined,  will  succeed. 

Write  two  sentences  containing  *nhat"  as  a  rela- 
tive; two,  as  an  adjective;  and  two,  as  a  conjunction. 


LESSON  XLI. 

VERBS.  —  CLASSES    OF    VERBS. 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or 
atate;  as,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

The  being,  action,  or  state  may  be  c^rmedy  assumed^  or  used 
abstractly ;  as,  "George  runs ;^^  "George  running;^'  *^tonin" 

When  a  verb  affirms  something  of  a  person  or  thing,  it  is 
called  j^nzVe,  being  limited  by  the  person  and  number  of  its 
subject.  When  it  has  no  subject,  it  does  not  affirm,  and  is  not 
limited;  and  is,  hence,  called  the  infinitive;  as,  *'to  runJ^ 

What  is  a  verb?  How  may  the  being,  action,  or  state,  be 
used?     What  is  a  finite  verb ?    What  is  an  infinitive? 


LESSON    FORTY-FIRST,  91 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  use^  into  tran- 
sitive and  intransitive. 

A  transitive  verb  requires  the  addition  of  an  object 
to  complete  its  meaning;  a«s,  "James  struck  John,'' 

An  intransitive  verb  does  not  require  the  addition 
of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning ;  as,  "  The  horse 
runs.*' 

Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  form,  into 
regular  and  irregular. 

A  regular  verb  is  one  which  forms  its  past  tense 
and  past  participle  by  adding  "  ed"  *  to  the  present 
tense ;  love,  loyed. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  the 
past  tense  and  past  participle  by  the  addition  of  ed 
to  the  present  tense ;  as,  see,  saw,  seen  ;  write,  wrote, 
written. 

A  defective  verb  is  one  in  which  some  of  the  parts 
are  wanting  ;  as,  ma^/,  might  (participle  wanting). 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  which  is  employed  in  the 
conjugation  of  other  verbs  ;  as,  have,  in  "  have  loved." 

An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which  an  action  or 

How  are  verbs  divided  according  to  their  use  ?  According  to 
their  form?  What  is  a  transitive  verb?  An  intransitive? 
What  is  a  regular  verb?  What  is  an  irregular  verb?  A 
defective  verb  ?     An  auxiliary  ?     An  impersonal  verb  ? 

*  In  every  regular  verb  the  past  tense  and  past  participle  is 
invariably  formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  present  tense.  But  in 
such  verbs  as  love^  move,  live,  &c.,  the  final  e  is  dropped  before 
the  addition  is  made. 

-  — ----il 


92  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


state  is  asserted  independently  of  any  particular  sub- 
ject; as,  "it  rams;'*  ''it  snows." 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples,  and 
tell  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive  — 
regular  or  irregular  : — 

The  twilight  deepens. 

I  have  dug  the  garden. 

Gertrude  is  travelling  in  Europe. 

Have  you  read  Everett's  oration  T 

The  sexton  rings  the  bell. 

The  lady  invited  her  friends  to  visit  her. 

The  little  boy  is  very  fond  of  his  rocking-horse. 

They  act  charades. 

Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost. 

Write  five  sentences  containing  regular  intransi- 
tivey  and  five  containing  irregular  transitive  verbs. 


LESSON  XLII. 

To  verbs  belong  voice,  mode,  tense,  number,  and 
person. 

voice. 

Voice  is  that  form  of  the  transitive  verb  which 
shows  whether  the  subject  acts,  or  is  acted  upon. 
There  are  two  voices — the  active  and  the  passive. 

Wbat  modifications  belong  to  verbs  ?    What  is  voice  ?     How 
many  voices  are  there  ? 


LESSON    FORTY-SECOND.  98 

The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting  ; 
as,  "John  struck  William/' 

Here  John  is  the  subject,  and  is  the  one  who  acis. 

The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted 
upon;  as,  "William  was  struck  by  John." 

Here  William  is  the  subject,  but  he  does  not  act;  he  only 
receives  the  action  put  forth  by  John. 

The  passive  form  of  the  verb  consists  of  the  verb 
"to  be''  in  its  various  modes  and  tenses,  joined  to 
the  passive  participle  of  the  verb  ;  as,  "  It  is  moved;'* 
"  It  was  moved;''  "  It  will  be  moved," 

Ri5M.  1. — Intransitive  verbs  have  no  passive  voice.  Such 
verbs  as  *'I  am  come;"  "Babylon  is  fallen,'^  are  not  passive, 
but  intransitive,  with  a  passive  form. 

Rem.  2. — Some  verbs,  usually  intransitive,  become  transitive 
when  used  with  a  causative  signification,  or  with  a  noun  of 
kindred  meaning ;  as,  *'  They  ran  a  train  (caused  it  to  run)  at 
the  rate  of  forty  miles  an  hour ;"  "  He  ran  a  race;"  "  He  sleeps 
the  sleep  of  death.''  These  verbs  may  have  a  passive  form  ;  as, 
"  The  train  was  run,''  &c. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples — ^tell 

which    are   transitive,   and   which   are   intransitive ; 

which  are  regular  and  which  are  irregular ;  which  are 

of  the  active  and  which  of  the  passive  voice : — 

Abraham  sat  in  the  door  of  his  tent.  He  lived  to  a  good  old 
I  age. 

What  is  the  active  voice  ?  The  passive  ?  Of  what  does  the 
Ipassive  form  of  the  verb  consist?  What  is  said  of  intransitive 
I  verbs?     When  are  intransitive  verbs  used  transitively  ? 


94  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

May  I  live  the  life  of  the  righteous. 
Chaucer  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
Spenser  was  born  in  1553. 
The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained. 

Ay,  call  it  holy  ground, 

The  soil  where  first  they  trod  1 
They  have  left  unstained  what  there  they  found. 

Freedom  to  worship  God. 

The  stars  were  hidden  by  a  thick  cloud. 
Another  race  has  filled  these  populous  borderg. 
The  melancholy  days  are  come. 
The  brightness  of  their  smile  was  gone. 
Group  after  group  are  gathering. 

To  prayer !  to  prayer !  for  the  sun  hath  gone, 
And  the  gathering  darkness  of  night  comes  on. 


LESSON  XLIII. 

MODE. 

Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  being,  action,  or 
state  is  asserted. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  five  modes — the  in- 
dicativey  the  potential,  the  subjunetive,  the  imperative^ 
and  the  infinitive. 

The  indicative  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  actually 
existing ;  as,  "James  Zov^s.y,,.^"  William «^a«  struck,'' 

The  poteritial  mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  per- 
mission, necessity,  or  duty  of  acting,  or  being  in  a 

What  is  mode?     How  many  modes  are  there?    Define  the 
.  indicative  mode.     The  potential.  : 


LESSON    FORTY-THIKD.  95 

certain  state ;  as,  "We  can  sing;  "We  may  write;" 
"  He  must  read;  "  They  should  obey  the  law/' 

The  subjunctive  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  conditional 
or  doubtful;  as,  ''If  he  leave  me;''  "Though  he 
slay  me." 

The  imperative  mode  asserts  a  command^  an  en- 
treaty^ or  di, permission ;  as,  "Write;'*  "  Cro  thou;" 
"Be  admonished y 

The  infinitive  mode  represents  the  action  or  state 
as  an  abstract  noun;  as,  "  To  write;'*  "  To  be  seen.'* 

Exercise. 
Give  the  modes  of  the  following  verbs : — 

The  gentle  needs  the  strong  to  sustain  it. 

Lead  on  1  my  orphan  boy  !     It  may  bring  to  thee  a  joy. 

God  hath  spoken, 

And  the  strong  arm  I  leaned  upon,  is  broken. 
Thou  wilt  dream  that  the  world  is  fair. 
Canst  thou  bind  the  sweet  influences  of  the  Pleiades  ? 
Kend  your  hearts  and  not  your  garments. 
Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

PARTICIPLES. 

A  participle  is  a  word  having  the  signification  of 
the  verb,  but  the  construction  of  the  adjective ;  as, 
"We  found  him  lying  on  the  ground."  "Having 
written  his  letter,  he  sent  it  to  his  friend." 

Rem.  1.— The  participle  is  so  called  from  its  participating 
in  the  properties  of  the  verb  and  adjective. 


Define  the  subjunctive  mode.     The  imperative.     The  infini- 
tive.    What  is  a  participle  ?     Why  so  called  ? 


96  Greene's  introduction. 


Rem.  2. — Sometimes  the  participle,  with  the  signification  of 
the  verb,  has  the  construction  of  the  noun ;  as,  "  He  was  en- 
gaged in  reading  Shakspeare." 

There  are  properly  two  participles  —  the  present  and  the 
perfect;  as,  reading,  liamng  read;  {being)  loved,  having  been 
loved. 

There  are,  however,  three  forms  commonly  called  partici- 
ples— the  present,  the  past,  and  the  perfect. 

Examples. 

Present,  Past,  Perfect. 

Active  voice.       Loving.  Loved.         Having  loved. 

Passive  voice.    Being  loved.     Loved.         Having  been  loved. 

Rem. — The  form  called  the  past  participle  was  proba})ly  a 
passive  participle,  having  always  a  passive  meaning  ;  as,  "  He 
has  treasures  concealed^'  "  lie  has  concealed  treasures.*'  This 
last  form  of  expression  has  come  eventually  to  assume  an  active 
meaning ;  as,  "  He  has  concealed  his  treasures.''  In  this 
change  of  meaning,  it  has  properly  lost  ita  character  as  a  par- 
ticiple. It  never  partakes  of  the  properties  of  an  adjective,  is 
purely  verbal,  being  associated  with  have  in  the  predicate,  and 
belongs  equally  to  transitive  or  intransitive  verbs.  Yet,  alone 
it  is  not  a  verb,  since  it  has  no  power  to  predicate.  We  cannot 
Hay,  "  He  written ;"  "  They  eaten."  It  is  used  with  have,  to 
denote  a  completed  act. 

The  present  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or 
state,  present,  and  in  progress  at  the  time  represented 
by  the  principal  verb  ;  as,  "  We  find,  found,  or  shall 
find  him  sitting  in  a  chair." 


What  construction  has  the  participle  sometimes  ?  How 
many  participles  are  there  ?  What  three  forms  are  commonly 
used  ?  What  is  said  of  the  past  participle  ?  What  does  the 
present  active  participle  denote  ? 


LESSON    FORTY-THIRD.  97 

Rem. — This  participle  always  ends  in  ing^  and  has  an  active 

signification,  and  may  be  either  transitive  or  intransitive.  Like 
tlie  other  participles,  it  dates  from  the  time  of  the  principal 
verb,  and  not  from  the  time  of  speaking. 

The  present  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception 
of  an  act  at  the  time  represented  by  the  principal 
verb ;  as,  "  He  lives,  lived,  will  live,  loved  by  all.** 

The  ferfeet  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or 
state  completed  at  the  time  represented  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb;  as,  '^  Having  finished  his  speech,  he  sat 
down.'* 

Rem. — The  actual  time  of  the  completion  may  be  prior  to  the 
time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb. 

The  perfect  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception 
of  an  act,  past  and  completed,  at  the  time  represented 
by  the  principal  verb  ;  as,  "  Having  been  driven  from 
home,  he  enlisted  in  the  army.** 

The  action  or  state  expressed  by  the  participle  may 
hQ  eiihQv predicated  ov  assumed ;  as,  "The  horse  w 
running  through  the  street;**  "The  horse  running 
through  the  street.'* 

Exercise  (1.) 

Give  the  active  participles  of — 

Sit,  lay,  do,  arrive,  delay. 

What  remark  upon  the  present  active  participle  ?  ^  Lai 
does  it  denote  ?  What  does  the  present  passive  participle  denote  ? 
What  does  the  perfect  active  participle  denote  ?  What  remark  ? 
What  does  the  perfect  passive  participle  show?  Ilow  may  the 
participle  be  used  ? 


98  Greene's  introduction. 

Give  the  participles  of — 

Throw,  write,  destroy,  obtain. 

Classify  the  participles  in  the  following  examples : 

Having  crossed  the  river,  I  ascended  the  mountain. 

Philip,  running  very  fast,  soon  overtook  his  father. 

Virginia  died,  lamented  by  all. 

I  saw  Emily  sitting  by  the  window. 

Having  come  to  the  shore,  we  moored  our  boat. 

Honor  lost,  all  is  lost. 

Having  once  been  deceived,  I  could  trust  him  no  longer. 

See  the  meadow,  covered  with  flowers. 

MODEL   FOR   PARSING   A   PARTICIPLE. 

Having  written  my  letter,  I  directed  it  carefully. 

Having  vxiitten  is  (1)  2l  participle.    Why  ?     From  write  (write, 
wrote,  written.) 

(2)  perfect  active.     Why  ?   (Writing,  written, 

having  written.) 

(3)  beh)ng8  to  "  I."     Rxdt. — An  adjective  or 

participle  must  belong  to  some  noun  or 
pronoun. 

He  is  occupied  in  teaching  German. 
Teaching  is  a  participial  noun.  As  a  transitive  participle,  it 
is  limited  by  Gentian  as  its  object.  As  a  noun,  it  is  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  neuter  gender,  objective  case,  and  com- 
pletes the  relation  of  the  preposition  m.  Rule, — A  noun  or 
pronoun  used  to  complete  the  relation  of  a  proposition,  is  in  the 
objective  case. 

Exercise. 
Parse  the  following  participles : — 
EJith  went  on  her  way,  singing  merrily. 
In  keeping  his  commandments,  there  is  great  reward. 

Parse  **  having  written,"  as  in  the  modeL    Parse  "  teaching.'^ 


LESSON    FORTY-FOURTH.  99 

Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  a^^ain. 
Being  defeated  many  timen,  thev  finally  retired. 
Having  taken  the  city,  the  General  gave  it  up  to  pillage. 
Tiie  grass  having  been  mown,  th**  hay-makers  returned  home 
Lawrence  fell  from  the  tree,  m  attempting  to  reach  the  n€st» 
Uttered  not,  yet  compr'^hended, 

Is  the  spirit's  voiceless  prayer ; 
Soft  rebukes  with  blessings  ended, 
Breathing  from  her  lips  of  air. 
I  see  them,  escaped  from  these  Derils,  pursuing  their  all  but 
desperate  undertaking,  and  landed  at  last  on  the  ice-olad  rocks 
of  Plymouth. 


LESSOIJ   XLIV. 

TENSE. 

Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event. 

Rem. — An  action  may  be  spoken  of  without  reference  to  its 
Continuance  or  its  completion  ;  or  it  may  be  spoken  of  as  in- 
complete or  as  finished.  Hence,  arise  different  forms  of  the 
verb,  which  must  be  distinguished  in  connection  with  the  time 
of  the  action.  Thus,  in  present  time  we  may  have,  I  read^  I 
am  reading,  I  do  ready  I  have  read.  So  in  past  time,  we  have, 
I  ready  I  was  reading^  I  did  ready  I  had  read. 

There  are  three  divisions  of  time  —  the  past^  the 
present^  and  xhe  future. 

Each  division  has  two  tenses  —  an  absolute  and  a 
relative.  There  are,  therefore,  six  tenses  —  threo 
absolute  and  three  relative. 

What  does  tense  denote?  Why  do  we  have  different  forms 
of  the  verb  to  denote  the  same  time  ?  How  many  divisions  of 
time  are  there  ?     How  many  tenses  in  each  division  ? 


100         greene's  introduction. 
Examples. 

Absolute.     I  write.  I  wrote.  I  shall  writ€. 

Relative,     I  have  written.     I  had  written.     I  shall  have  written. 

The  tenses  are  —  the  present y  the  present  perfeety 
the  past,  the  past  perfect,  the  future,  the  future  per- 
fect. 

The  present  tense  represents  what  takes  place  in 
present  time;  as,  "I  seey'  "I  am  seeing,''  "I  do 
see,''  "I  am  seen." 

Rem. — Present  time  may  mean  the  moment  of  speakinor,  or 
it  m>iy  mean  a  perit)d  of  time  including  the  moment  of  speak- 
ing; as.  to-day,  this  week,  this  year. 

The  present  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  event 
completed  in  present  time ;  as,  ''  I  have  seen,"  **  I 
ftave  been  seeing,"  "  I  have  been  seen." 

Rem. — Present  time  in  the  perfect  tense  always  embraces  a 
period  including  the  time  of  speaking  and  the  time  in  which 
the  act  or  event  is  completed.  The  completion  of  the  act  takes 
place  prior  to  the  time  of  speaking,  but  always  within  the  time 
assumed  as  present,  otherwise  the  past  should  be  used. 

The  past  tense  represents  what  took  place  in  time 
wholly  past ;  as,  ^'1  saw,"  ^^Iwas  seeing,"  ^' 1  did 
see,"  '*  I  was  seen." 

The  past  perfect  represents  a  past  event  as  com- 
pleted in  time  wholly  past;  as,  "I  had  seen,"  ''I 
had  been  seeing,"  '^  1  had  been  seen."  \ 


Give  th**  :xamples.     Name  the  six  tenses.     What  does  the 
present  tense  represent?     What  do  we  mean  hy  present  ti,me  ? 
What  does  the  present  perfect  tense  denote?     What  does  pre- 
sent time  in  the  perfect  tense  embrace?     What  does  the  past  j 
tense  represent  ?     The  past  perfect  ?  I 


LESSON   FORTY-FOURTH.  101 

The  future  tense  represents  what  will  take  place 
in  future  time  ;  as,  "I  sIiM  see/'  " I  shall  be  seeing^'* 
"  I  shall  be  seen.'' 

The  future  perfect  tense  represents  an  event  as 
completed  in  future  time ;  as,  -'  I  shall  have  seen^' 
"I  shall  have  been  seeing^'"  "I  shall  have  been 
seen,'' 

The  indicative  and  subjunctive  modes  have  six 
tenses  each ;  the  potential,  four ;  the  infinitive,  two ; 
and  the  imperative,  one. 

FORMS   OF  THE   VERB. 

TransUive  verbs  have  four  forms — the  common^  the  emphatic, 
the  progressive,  and  the  pubsive  ;  "1  /ord/'  **1  do  love"  '*!  am 
loving,"  *'  I  am  loved." 

Intransitive  verbs  may  have  three  forms  —  the  common,,  the 
emphatic,  and  the  progressive  ;  as,  **  1  sit,"  "1  do  sit  "  **  1  am 
sitting" 

The  common  form  represents  an  act  indefinitely,  as  a  custom, 
eras  completed  without  reference  to  its  progress;  as,  "I  love" 
"1  loved,"  *'  I  shall  love,"  "  I  have  loved." 

The  emphatic  form  represents  an  act  witli  emphasis,  or  is 
used  in  asking  questions;  as,  "1  do  write,"  "I  did  write," 
"  Does  he  write?" 

The  progressive  forr^  represents  an  act  in  its  pro7;ress,  either 
as  yet  unfinished;  as,  *' 1  am  writing,"  or,  as  cfuipleted;  as, 
*•  1  have  been  writing." 

The  passive  form  represents  the  reception  of  sa  act;  as,  "  I 
ajn  loved,"  '*  1  was  loved,"  *'  1  shall  be  loved." 


What. does  the  future  tense  represent?  TLe  future  perfect? 
Ilovr  many  tenses  has  each  inode  ?  How  many  forms  have 
transitive  verbs?  How  many  have  intransitive?  What  is  the 
common  form?  The  emphatic?  The  progressive?  The 
passive  ? 


102  Greene's  introduction. 

The  number  and  person  of  the  verb  are  properties 
which  show  its  agreement  with  the  subject.  Like  the 
subject,  the  verb  may  have  two  numbers  and  three 
persons. 

Rem. — The  form  of  the  verb  *'to  be"  changes  to  show  the 
number  and  person.  In  the  solemn  or  scriptural  style,  the 
second  person  singular,  indie,  pres.,  ends  in  est;  as,  **  Lovcst 
thou  me  ?"  The  third  person  singular,  commonly  formed  by 
adding  «  or  e5  to  the  simple  verb,  assumes  eth  in  the  solemn 
style  ;  as,  **  lie  goethJ' 

Exercise. 
Tell  the  tenses  of  the  following  verbs : — 

Did  you  hear  the  lecture  ? 

Archibald  listened  attentively. 

It  will  not  rain. 

Augusta  had  intended  to  go. 

I  have  heard  the  Irish  orator. 

My  father  saw  the  constellation  of  the  Soatbem  Cross. 

Is  Theodore  confident  of  success  7 

I  shall  have  finished  my  work  when  Maria  arrives. 

Had  your  cousin  read  the  book  ? 

The  hills  were  covered  with  snow. 

Tell  the  tenses  and  forms  of  the  following  verbs : — 

The  paper  is  published  in  Boston. 
Sorrow  is  the  common  lot  of  man. 
I  do  not  mind  the  storm. 
Carlton  has  gained  the  prize. 
Guy  has  been  learning  to  skate. 

What  is  said  of  the  number  and  person  of  the  verb?  IIow 
is  the  second  person  singular  formed  ?  Ucw  is  the  third  per* 
don? 


LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH,  108 

Charlpmagne  was  beloved  by  his  people. 

Shepherd,  lead  on  ! 

Thus  far  shah  thou  go. 

If  thy  brother  die,  he  shall  rise  again. 

Thou  must  go  to  rest. 

He  sunk  to  repose  -where  the  red  heaths  are  blended. 

Pale  mourned  the  lily,  where  the  rose  had  died. 

Ilis  own  mother  would  hardly  have  known  him, 

Ida  was  walking  on  the  beach. 

The  sun  will  have  set  when  I  reach  home. 


LESSON    XLV. 


CONJUGATION, 


The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  its  several  modes,  tenses,  voices,  numbers,  and 
persons. 

The  conjugation  of  the  verb  is  effected  by  a  change 
of  its  form  or  by  the  use  of  auxiliaries. 

Rem.  —  The  only  tenses  which  change  their  form  are  the 
present  and  the  past ;  as,  sit,  siUestj  sit*,  sat,  sat^e*^. 

Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  which  are  used  in  conju- 
gating other  verbs.     They  are  — 

Present. — Do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must. 
Past. — Did,  was,  had,  should,  would,  might,  could. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present  indi- 
cative, the  past  indicative,  and  the  past  participle. 

What  is  the  conjujration  of  a  verb?  How  is  the  conjugation 
of  a  verb  effected  ?  What  are  the  only  tenses  that  change  their 
form?  What  are  auxiliary  verbs?  Name  the  auxiliaries  in 
the  present  tense  ?  In  the  past?  What  are  the  principal  pai'ts 
of  a  verb  ? 


104 


gbebnb's  introduction. 


Examples. 


Present 
Explain. 
Reply. 
Write. 
Shine. 
Ilurt. 


Past. 
Explained. 
Replied. 
Wrote. 
Shone. 
Ilurt 


Pott  Participle, 

Explained. 

Replied. 

Written. 

Shone. 

Hurt. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  "  TO  BE." 

Note. — Let  the  pupil  observe  the  forms  of  the  tenses,  as  ho 
learne  the  conjugation  of  the  diflferent  modes  and  tenses. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural, 

1.  I  am,  We  are, 

2.  Thou  art,  You  are, 

3.  lie  is.  They  are. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural, 

1.     I  have  been,  We  have  been, 

^    Thou  hast  been,  You  have  been, 

*^,    Ue  has  been.  They  have  been. 


Past  Tensi. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular, 
I  was, 
Thou  wast. 
He  was. 


Plural, 
We  were. 
You  were, 
They  were. 


Give  the  principal  parts  of  "  explain,"  "  reply,"  "  write," 
•  shine,"  "  hurt."     Conjugate  the  verb  "  To  Be." 


LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH.  105  i 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Singvlar.  Plurov. 

I      I  had  been,  We  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  You  had  been, 

3.  Ue  had  been.  They  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be,  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  lie  shall  or  will  be.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been,        We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been.    You  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  He  shaU  or  will  have  been.     They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


POTENTIAL   MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singular, 
I  may  be,* 
Thou  mayst  be, 
He  may  be. 

Plural. 
We  may  be,                     1 
You  may  be, 
They  may  be. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular, 

Plural. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

I  may  have  been, 
Thou  mayst  have  been. 
He  may  have  been. 

We  may  have  been. 
You  may  have  been, 
They  may  have  been. 

*  Conjugate  with  each  auxiliary, 
I  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

— 
or  with  all  united,  tfcc«  f 

106 

GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION.                        \ 

Past  Tense. 
Singular                                  Plural, 

1. 
2. 
3. 

I  mij;ht  he. 
Thou  mightst  be, 
lie  might  be. 

We  might  be, 
You  migfit  be. 
They  might  be. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Singtclar, 

Plural. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

I  might  have  been. 
Thou  mightst  have  been, 
He  might  have  been. 

We  might  have  been. 
You  might  have  been. 
They  might  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singular. 
If  T  am, 
If  thou  art, 
if  ho  is. 

Plural. 
If  we  are. 
If  you  are. 
If  they  are. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

If  I  have  been. 
If  thou  hast  been. 
If  he  has  been. 

If  we  have  been, 
If  you  have  been, 
If  they  have  been. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

2. 

!      ^* 

IL 

If  I  was. 
If  thou  wast. 
If  he  was. 

If  we  were, 
If  you  were, 
If  they  were 

LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH.  107 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  If  I  had  been,  If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hpdst  been,  If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been.  If  they  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 
Singular.  PluraL 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be,  If  we  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,       If  you  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  If  he  shall  cyr  will  be.  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been.      If  we  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,  If  you  shall  or  will  have  boen, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been.    If  they  shall  or  will  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     {Subjunctive  form.) 

Note. — Besides  the  forms  already  given,  the  subjunctive  has 
another  in  the  present  and  past,  peculiar  to  itself. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  If  I  be,  If  we  be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  If  you  be, 

3.  If  be  be.  If  they  be. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  If  I  were,  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  wert.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  were.  If  they  were. 


ct^   U  y-    ^y-r^t^^ 


108  Greene's  introduction.       '^^ 

imperative  mode. 

Present  Tense. 
Singvlar,  Plural, 

Be,  or  Be  thou.  Be  ye  or  yoo. 

INFINITIVE   MODE. 

Present  Tense.    To  be. 
Present  Perfect.    To  have  been 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.     Bein^  Past.    Been. 

Perfect.    IlaviDg  been. 

Synopsis  is  a  short  view  of  the  verb,  showing  its  forms 
through  the  modes  and  tenses  in  a  single  number  and  person, 
thus :  In  the  first  person  singular,  we  have,  Ind.  Pres,,  I  am  ; 
Prea,  Per.,  I  have  been ;  Past,  I  was ;  Past  Per,,  I  had  been ; 
Fui,y  I  shall  be ;  Fut,  Per.,  I  shall  have  been.  Pot.  Pres.,  I 
may  be;  P-es.  Per.,  I  may  have  been ;  Past,  I  might  be;  Past 
Per,,  I  might  ha?e  been.     Sub.  iVe^.,  If  I  am,  &c 

Exercise. 

In  what  mode  and  tense  are  the  following? — 

I  am.  lie  has  been.  If  I  were.  You  can  be.  lie  might 
be.  To  have  been.  They  were.  lie  will  have  been.  You 
might  be.  She  had  been.  You  will  be.  To  be.  I  must  have 
be*3n.  Thou  art.  If  he  be.  If  you  are.  They  might  have 
been.     We  were.     I  had  been.     Thou  wast.     lie  is. 

Give  a  synopsis  of  **  to  be,*'  in  the  Ind.  second  person  sin 
gular,  sec.  plur.,  first  per.  plur.,  sec.  per.  phir.,  third  per.  plur 
Pot.  third  per.  sing.,  second  per.  plur.,  third  per.  plur.  Sub. 
'ec.  per.  sing.,  sec.  per.  plur.,  third  per.  plur.,  first,  per.  plur. 

Give  the  synopsis. 


LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH.  109 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  REGULAR  VERB  "TO  LOVE." 

ACTIVE       VOICE. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  love,  "We  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  You  love, 

3.  Ilji  loves.  They  love. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  have  loved,  We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  You  have  loved, 

3.  lie  has  lo'^^d.  They  have  loved. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  loved,  VTe  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  You  loved, 

3.  He  loved.  They  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  had  loved.  We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  You  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved.  They  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  shall  or  v^ill  love.  We  shall  or  vrill  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love.  You  shall  or  will  love, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

Conjugate  the  verb  "To  Love,"  active — passive. 


110  Greene's  introduction. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  riural. 

1,     T  shall  or  will  have  loved  "We  shall  or  will  have  loved, 


2.  Thou  nhalt  or  wilt  have  loved, 

3.  lie  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

You  shall  or  will  have  loved, 
They  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

POTENTIAL 

MODE. 

Present  ' 

Cense. 

Singnlar, 

Plural. 

1.  I  may  love, 

2.  Thou  niayst  love, 

3.  lie  may  love. 

We  may  love, 
You  may  love, 
They  may  love. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singtdar, 

Plural, 

1. 

2. 
3. 

I  may  have  loved, 
Thou  mayst  have  loved, 
lie  may  have  loved. 

We  may  have  loved. 
You  may  have  loved. 
They  may  have  loved. 

Past  Tense. 

Sinfftdar, 

Plural. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

I  might  love. 
Thou  mightst  love, 
lie  might  love. 

We  might  love, 
You  might  love, 
They  might  love. 

1 
Past  Perfect  Tense.                                  j 

Sing^dar, 

Plural 

1- 
2. 

3. 

I  might  have  loved, 
Thou  mightst  have  loved, 
He  might  have  loved. 

We  might  have  loved. 
You  might  have  loved. 
They  might  have  loved. 

LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH.                       Ill 

1 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     {Regular  form.) 
Present  Tense. 
Singular,                                  Plural, 

1.  If  I  love.                               If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  lovest,                      If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  loves.                           If  they  love. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singular, 
If  I  have  loved. 
If  thou  hast  loved, 
If  he  has  loved. 

Plural, 
If  we  have  loved. 
If  you  have  loved. 
If  they  have  loved. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

Past  Tense. 
Singular.                                 Plural, 

If  I  loved,                           If  we  loved, 
If  thou  lovedst,                  If  you  loved. 
If  he  loved.                         If  they  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singular, 

If  I  had  loved. 

If  thou  hadst  loved. 

If  he  had  loved. 

Plural, 
If  we  had  loved. 
If  you  had  loved. 
If  they  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1. 

2 
3. 

Singular. 
If  T  shall  or  will  love, 
If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love, 
If  he  shall  or  will  love. 

Plural, 
If  we  shall  or  will  love, 
If  you  shall  or  will  love. 
If  they  shall  or  will  love. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular, 

1.  If!  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

Plural. 
If  we  shall  or  will  have  loved. 
If  you  shall  or  will  have  loved. 
If  they  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

112  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.  {Sitbjunctive  form.) 

Present  Tense. 
Singnlar.  Plural, 

1.  If  I  love,  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love  If  jou  love, 

3.  If  he  love.  If  they  love. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
Sinffidur.  FluraL 

Love,  or  Love  thou.  Love,  or  Love  you. 

INFINITIVE   MODE. 
Present.     To  love.  Perfect.    To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.     Loving.  Past.    Loved. 

Perfect.     Having  loved. 


PASSIVE      VOICE.  \ 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 
Present  Tense. 
Singvlar.  Plural, 

1.  I  am  loved,  We  are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,    •  You  are  loved. 

3.  lie  is  loved.  They  are  loved. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural,, 

1.  I  have  been  loved,  We  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,  You  have  been  loved, 

3.  II©  has  been  loved.  They  have  been  loved. 


LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH.  118 

Past  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  was  loved,  We  were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast. loved,  You  were  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved.  They  were  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1,  I  had  been  loved,  We  had  been  loved, 

2,  Thou  hadst  been  loved,      You  had  been  loved, 

3,  He  had  been  loved.  They  had  been  loved. 

Future  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  loved.  We  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved^  You  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved.  They  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been  loved,  We  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been    You  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

3.  He   shall  or  will  have  been    They  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved.  loved. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 
Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be  loved,  We  may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  You  may  be  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved.  They  may  be  loved. 

10*  H 


114  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved,  "We  may  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved,     You  may  have  been  loved, 

3.  lie  may  have  been  loved.  They  may  have  been  loved 

Past  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  might  be  loved.  We  might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  You  might  be  loved, 

3.  lie  might  be  loved.  They  might  be  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved,  "We  might  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved,  You  might  have  been  loved 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved,       They  might  have  been  loveti 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     {Regular  form.) 

Present  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  If  I  am  loved.  If  we  are  loved, 

2.  If  thou  art  loved,  If  you  are  loved, 

3.  If  he  is  loved.  If  they  are  loved. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  If  I  have  been  loved.  If  v^e  have  been  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hast  been  loved,         If  you  have  been  loved, 

3.  If  he  has  been  loved.  If  they  have  been  loved. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural. 

1.  If  I  was  loved.  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wast  loved,  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  was  loved.  If  they  were  loved. 


LESSON    FORTY-FIFTH.                    115 

Past  Perfeot  Ten 

Singular, 

1.  If  I  had  been  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  been  loved. 

Plural, 
If  we  had  been  loved, 
If  jou  had  been  loved, 
If  they  had  been  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1. 

2. 
3 

Singular, 
If  I  shall  or  will  be  loved, 
If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved, 
If  he  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

Plural, 
If  we  shall  or  will  be  loved, 
If  you  shall  or  will  be  loved, 
If  they  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural, 

i.     If  I  shall  or  will  have  been  If  we  shall  or  will  have  been 
loved,  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been  If  you  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

3.  It  he  shall  or  will  have  l^en  If  they  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved.  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOPE.     {SuhjuTictive form») 
Present  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  If  I  be  loved,  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  thou  be  loved.  If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  be  loved.  If  they  be  loved. 

^AST  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  If  I  were  lo^ed,  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  wer®  loved.  If  they  were  loved. 


116  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
Singular.  Plural, 

Be  loved,  or  Be  thou  loved.        Be  loved,  or  Be  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE   MODE. 
Present.    To  be  loved.  Perfect.    To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.    Being  loved.  Past  (Passive),     Loved, 

Perfect.     Having  been  loved. 

Exercise. 

Tell  the  mode,  tense,  voice,  number,  and  person  of 
the  following: — 

She  has  loved.  I  might  love.  "We  had  loved.  We  had  been 
loved.  lie  may  have  loved.  If  I  be  loved.  I  love.  He  will 
love.  lie  shall  have  loved.  I  have  loved.  They  shall  have 
loved.  She  is  loved.  We  may  be  loved.  You  might  have 
been  loved.  If  I  love.  If  they  love.  They  may  love.  We 
will  love.  I  had  loved.  Thou  hast  loved.  Thou  wilt  have 
loved.  Thou  art  loved.  He  was  loved.  She  will  have  been 
loved. 

Write  or  repeat  a  full  conjugation  of  the  following 
verbs : — 

Relieve,  betray,  defy,  persuade,  resolve,  determine. 

Conjugate  two  of  the  above  verbs  interrogatively, 
two  of  them  negatively,  and  two  of  them  interroga- 
tively and  negatively.      Thus :  — 

Po  I  love  ?  &c.    I  do  not  love,  &c.    Do  I  not  love  ?  &c. 


LESSON    FORTY- 

SIXTH.                   117 

LESSON  XLVI. 

IBREaULAR     VERBS. 

An  irregular 

verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  its 

past  tense  and 

past  participle 

by  adding  ed  to  the 

present  tense ;  as,  see^  saw,  seen , 

•  write^  wrotCj  written. 

Rem. — The  following  list  contains  the  principal  parts  of  the 

irregular  verbs.     Those  verbs  vrhich 

are  marked  R.  have  also 

the  regular  forms 

and  those  which 

are  Italicized  are  either 

obsolete  or  are  becoming  so : — 

FresenL 

Past 

Past  Participle, 

Abide, 

Abode, 

Abode. 

Am, 

Was, 

Been. 

Arise, 

Arose, 

Arisen. 

Awake, 

Awoke,  R. 

Awaked. 

Bear  {to  bring  forth)  y  Bore,  hare^ 

Born. 

Bear  {to  carry), 

Bore,  bare, 

Borne. 

Beat, 

Beat, 

Beaten,  beat 

Begin, 

Began, 

Begun. 

Bend, 

Bent,  R. 

Bent 

Bereave, 

Bereft,  r. 

Bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

Besought, 

Besought 

Bid, 

Bid,  bade, 

Bidden,  bid. 

Bind,  Z7»-, 

Bound 

Bound. 

Bite, 

Bit, 

Bitten,  bit 

Bleed, 

Bled, 

Bled. 

Blow, 

Blew, 

Blown. 

Break, 

Broke,  brake, 

Broken,  broke. 

Breed, 

Bred, 

Bred. 

Bring, 

Brought, 

Brought. 

Build,  Be-, 

Built,  R. 

Built 

Burn, 

Burnt,  R. 

Burnt,  R. 

Burst, 


Burst, 


Burst 


118          greenb's  introduction. 

FrescTit 

Past. 

Past  Participle, 

Buy, 

Bought, 

Bought. 

Cast, 

Cast, 

Cast. 

Catch, 

Caught, 

Caught. 

Chide, 

Chid, 

Chidden,  chid. 

Choose, 

Chose, 

Chosen. 

Cleave  (to  oiTiers), 

Cleaved,  clave. 

Cleaved. 

Cleave  (to  split). 

Clove,  cleft,  clave. 

Cleft,  cloven,  VL 

Cling, 

Clung, 

Clung. 

Clothe, 

Clad,R. 

Clad.  R. 

Come,  Be-f 

Came, 

*Come. 

Cost, 

Cost, 

Cost. 

Creep, 

Crept, 

Crept. 

Crow, 

Crew,  B. 

Crowed 

Cut, 

Cut, 

Cut. 

Dare  (to  venture), 

Durst, 

Dared. 

Dare  (to  challenge) 

R  Dared, 

Dared. 

Deal, 

Dealt,  R, 

Dealt,  R. 

Dig, 

Dug,  B. 

Dug.  R. 

Do,  Mis-,  Un-, 

Did, 

Done. 

Draw, 

Drew, 

Drawn. 

Dream, 

Dreamt,  B. 

Dreamt,  R. 

Drink, 

Drank, 

Drunk,  drank. 

Drive, 

Drove, 

Driven. 

Dwell, 

Dwelt.  R. 

Dwelt,  R. 

Eat, 

Ate,  eat, 

Eaten. 

^  Fall,  Be-, 

Fell, 

Fallen. 

Feed, 

Fed, 

Fed. 

Feel, 

Felt, 

Felt. 

Fight, 

Fought, 

Fought. 

Find, 

Found, 

Found. 

Flee, 

Fled, 

Fled. 

Fling, 

Flung, 

Flung. 

Fly, 

Flew, 

Flown. 

Forbear, 

Forbore, 

Forborne 

Forget, 

Forgot, 

Forgotten,  forgot. 

'  Forsake, 

Forsook, 

Forsaken, 

r^ ^ '. , 

LESSON   FORTY-SIXTH.                    119 

Pi'csent, 

Fast. 

Fast  Farticiple, 

Freeze, 

Froze, 

Frozen. 

Freight, 

Freighted, 

Fraught,  R. 

Get,  Be-,  For-, 

Got, 

Got,  gotten. 

Gild, 

Gilt,   R. 

Gilt,R. 

Gird,  Be-,  En-, 

Girt,  R. 

Girt,  R. 

Give,  For-y  Mis-, 

Gave, 

Given. 

Go, 

Went, 

Gone. 

Grave,  En-, 

Graved, 

Graven,  b. 

Grind, 

Ground, 

Ground. 

Grow, 

^rew, 

Grown. 

Hang, 

Hung, 

Hung.* 

Have, 

Had, 

Had. 

Hear, 

Heard, 

Heard. 

Heave, 

Hove,  R. 

Hoven,  r. 

Hew, 

Hewed, 

Hewn,  R. 

Hide, 

Hid, 

Hidden,  hid. 

Hit, 

Hit, 

Hit. 

Hold,  J5e-,  WUhr, 

Held, 

Held,  holdm. 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Hurt. 

Keep, 

Kept, 

Kept. 

Kneel, 

Knelt,  R. 

Knelt,  B. 

Knit, 

Knit,  R. 

Knit,  R. 

Know, 

Knew, 

Known. 

Lade  (to  lodd),^ 

Laded, 

Laden. 

Lay, 

Laid, 

Laid. 

Lead,  Mis-, 

Led, 

Led. 

Leave, 

Left, 

Lea 

Lend, 

Lent, 

Lent. 

Let, 

Let, 

Let. 

Lie  {to  recline), 

Lay, 

Lain. 

Light, 

Lit,  R. 

Lit,  R. 

Load, 

Loaded, 

Laden,  R. 

Lose, 

Lost, 

Lost 

*  Hang,  to  take  away  life 

by  hanging,  is  regular. 

fLade,  to 

dip,  is  regular. 

120          gkebnb's  introduction. 

Present 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Make, 

Made, 

Made. 

Mean, 

Meant, 

Meant. 

Meet, 

Met, 

Met. 

Mow, 

Mowed, 

Mown,  R» 

Pay,  Be-, 

Paid, 

Paid. 

Pen  {to  enclose). 

Pent,  R. 

Pent,  R. 

Put, 

Put, 

Put. 

Quit, 

Quit,  B 

Quit,  B. 

Read, 

Read, 

Read. 

Rend, 

Rent, 

silent. 

Rid, 

Rid, 

Rid. 

Ride, 

Rode,  ridf 

Ridden,  rid. 

Ring, 

Rang,  rung, 

Rung. 

Rise,  A', 

Rose, 

Risen. 

Rive, 

Rived, 

Riven,  b. 

Rot, 

Rotted, 

Rotten,  B. 

Run, 

Ran,  run. 

Run. 

Saw, 

Sawed, 

Sawn,  R. 

Say, 

Said, 

Said. 

See, 

Saw, 

Seen. 

i    Seek, 

Sought, 

Sought. 

;    Seethe, 

Sod,  B. 

Sodden,  b. 

j    Sell, 

Sold, 

Sold. 

Send, 

Sent, 

Sent 

Set,  Be-, 

Set, 

Set. 

Shake, 

Shook, 

Shaken. 

Shape,  Mi^-, 

Shaped, 

Shapen,  b. 

\    Shave, 

Shaved, 

Shaven,  b. 

Shear, 

Sheared, 

Shorn,  R. 

Shed, 

Shed, 

Shed. 

Shine, 

Shone,  b. 

Shone,  B. 

Shoe, 

Shod, 

Shod. 

'    Shoot, 

Shot, 

Shot. 

Show, 

Showed, 

Shown. 

Shred, 

Shred, 

Shred. 

Shrink, 

i' : 

Shrunk,  shrank. 

Shrunk. 

LESSON   FORTY-SIXTH. 


121 


Fi-e^ent 

Fast, 

Past  Participle, 

Shut, 

Shut, 

Shut. 

Sing, 

Sang,  sung, 

Sung. 

Sink, 

Sunk,  sank. 

Sunk. 

Sit, 

Sat, 

Sat. 

Slay, 

Slew, 

Slain. 

Sleep, 

Slept, 

Slept. 

Slide, 

Slid, 

Slidden,  slid. 

Sling, 

Slung,  slang, 

Slung. 

Slink, 

Slunk, 

Slunk. 

Slit, 

^lit. 

Slit,  R. 

Smite, 

Smote 

Smitten,  smit 

Sow  (to  scatter), 

Sowed, 

Sown,  R. 

Speak  Be-, 

Spoke,  spakCf 

Spoken. 

Speed, 

Sped, 

Sped. 

Spell, 

Spelt,  R. 

Spelt,  B. 

Spend,  Mis-, 

Spent, 

Spent. 

Spill, 

Spilt,  R. 

Spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

Spun,  span, 

Spun. 

Spit,  Be-y 

Spit,  spat, 

Spit. 

Split, 

Split, 

Split. 

Spread,  Be-, 

Spread, 

Spread. 

Spring, 

Sprang,  sprung, 

Sprung. 

Stand,  With',  &c.. 

Stood, 

Stood. 

Steal, 

Stole, 

Stolen. 

Stick, 

Stuck, 

Stuck. 

Sting, 

Stung, 

Stung. 

Stride, 

Strode,  strid, 

Stridden,  strid. 

Strike, 

Struck, 

Struck,  stricken. 

String, 

Strung, 

Strung. 

Strive, 

Strove, 

Striven. 

Strow,  or  Strew,  Be 

-,  Strowed  or  strewec 

,  Strown,  strewn,  B. 

Swear, 

Swore,  sware, 

Sworn. 

Sweat, 

Sweat,  R. 

Sweat,  R. 

Sweep, 

Swept, 

Swept. 

Swell, 

Swelled, 

Swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

Swam,  swum. 

Swum. 

11 


122 


GREENE    S    INTRODUCTION, 


Present 
Swing, 

Take,  J5e-,  &o. 
Teach,  Mis-,  Re- 
Tear, 
Tell, 

Think,  J?tf-, 
Thrive, 
Throw, 
Thrust 
Tread, 
Wax, 
Wear, 
Weave, 
Weep, 
Wet, 
Whet, 
Win, 
Wind, 
Work, 
Wring, 
Write, 


Past 
Swung, 
Took, 
Taught, 
Tore,  tarc^ 
Told, 
Thought, 
Throve,  B, 
Threw, 
Thrust, 
Trod, 
Waxed, 
Wore, 
Wove, 
Wept, 
Wet,  B. 
Whet,  R. 
Won, 
Wound,  R. 
Wrought,  R. 
Wrung, 
Wrote, 


Past  Participle, 
Swung. 
Taken. 
Taught. 
Torn. 
Told. 
Thought. 
Thriven,  r. 
Thrown. 
Thrust. 

-Trodden,  trod. 
Waxen,  r. 
Worn. 
Woven. 
Wept. 
Wet,  R. 
Whet,  R. 
Won. 
Wound. 
Wrought,  R. 
Wrung. 
Written. 


MODEL  FOR  PARSING  A  VERB, 

Anna  had  gone  to  walk. 

Had  gone  (1)  is  a  verb  ;  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action, 
or  state. 

(2)  irregular;  it  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and 

past  participle  by  adding  ed, 

(3)  go,  went,  gone. 

(4)  intransitive;  it  does  not  require  an  object  to  com- 

plete its  meaning. 


Give  the  form   for  parsing  a  verb.    Parse  "Ilad  gone,'' 
according  to  the  model,  "  To  walk." 


LESSON    FORTY-SIXTH.  123 

(5)  common  form  ;  it  represents  an  act  indefinitely, 

&c. 

(6)  indicative  mode  ;  it  asserts  a  thing  as  actual. 

(7)  jpast perfect  tense;  it  represents  a  past  event  com- 

pleted in  past  time,  formed  by  prefixing  had  to 
the  past  participle  gon^. 

(8)  [  had  gone,  thou  hadst  gone,  he  had  gone,  we 

had  gone,  you  had  gone,  they  had  gone. 

(9)  tJiird  person^  singular  numbeTt  because  Anna  is. 
(10)  Rule  IV.    -The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject 

in  number  and  person. 
To  ryilk  is  a  regular,  intransitive  verb,  active  voice  (walk, 
talking,  walked),  infinitive  mode,  present  tense,  and  depends 
p^  had  gone.     Rule  XVI. 

Exercise. 
Parse  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples : — 

Blessed  are  the  peace-makers. 

Homage  should  be  paid  to  the  Most  High. 

The  Magna  Charta  wan  granted  to  the  English  by  King  John. 

The  Mexicans  were' defeated  by  the  Americans  at  Buena 
Vi-sta. ' 

If  you  wish,  I  will  show  you  the  Royal  Oak  where  King 
Charles  hid  himself. 

CromwelPs  name  will  be  long  remembered. 

Should  you  like  to  take  a  ride  ? 

The  village  bells  are  ringing  merrily. 

Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us, 
We  can  make  our  deeds  sublime ; 

And,  departing,  leave  behind  us, 
Footsteps  in  the  sands  of  Time, 


124  Greene's  introduction. 


LESSON    XLVII. 

ADVERBS. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning 
of  a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  other  adverb. 

Examples. 

The  stage  started  earJt/. 
He  has  uDdertaken  a  venj  difficult  task. 
The  sun,  shining  bn'ghilt/,  awoke  me. 
How  wildly  the  old  man  talked  I 

Rem. — Instead  of  a  single  word,  a  phrase  or  proposition  may 
be  added  to  a  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb,  to  express  an  adverbial 
idea ;  as,  "  Speak  distinctly — with  distinctness — so  that  you  may 
he  understood^' 

Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes — 
adverbs  oi  place,  of  time,  of  cause,  of  manner. 

Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  questions  WJieref  Whither  f 
Whence?  as,  here^  tliercy  ahovCy  helcno^  yonder^  somewhere^  no- 
wheiCy  hacky  upwards y  downwards y  &c.,  &c. 

Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions  When?  How  long? 
How  often  f  as,  theny  yesterday y  alicaySy  ever,  continually ,  ofteniy 
freqiienilyy  &c. 

Adverbs  of  canse  answer  the  questions,  Why?  Wherefore t 
as,  whyy  whereforCy  thereforCy  then. 

Adverbs  of  manner  answer  the  questions,  Howf  as,  elegantlyy 
faithfully y  fairly y  &c. 


What  is  an  adverb?  How  may  an  adverbial  idea  be  ex- 
pressed? How  are  adverbs  divided?  What  questions  do 
adverbs  of  place  answer?  Adverbs  of  time?  Adverbs  of 
cause?     Of    manner? 

IL.  ■  .  '■    '  J 


LESSON    FORTY-SEVENTH.  125 

With  these  last  may  be  classed  those  which  answer  the  ques- 
tion How'$  in  respect  to  quantity  or  quality  as,  How  much  ? 
Row  good  ?  such  as,  too,  very,  greatly,  chiefly,  &c. 
ll  Modal  adverbs  qualify  the  assertion,  and  not,  like  other 
adverbs,  that  which  is  asserted.  They  are :  yea,  yes,  verily, 
truly,  surely,  undoubtedly,  doubtless,  forsooth,  certainly,  no,  nay, 
not,  possibly,  probably,  perhaps,  peradventure,  perchance. 

Co7ijunctive  adverbs  are  those  which  give  to  a  dependent 
clause  an  adverbial  relation,  and  connect  it  with  the  verb, 
adjective,  or  adverb  which  it  modifies;  as,  "I  shall  meet  my 
friend  wh&n  the  boat  arrives." 

COMPARISON   OF   ADVERBS. 

Many  adverbs,  like  adjectives,  admit  of  compari- 
son ;  as,  soon^  sooner^  soonest;  bravely^  more  bravely^ 
most  bravely. 

Rem. — The  following  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly : — 


Positive, 

Comparative 

Superlative. 

111  or  badly, 

Worse, 

Worst. 

Little. 

Less, 

Least. 

Far, 

Farther, 

Farthest. 

Much, 

More, 

Most. 

WeU, 

Better, 

Best 

MODEL. 
The  stream  flows  most  rapidly  in  the  spring. 
Rapidly  (1)  is  an  adverb  of  manner.    Why? 

(2)  Compared,  (rapidly,  more  rapidly,  most  rapidly) ; 
superlative  degree. 

(3)  It   limits  flows.      Ride.  —  "Adverbs  are  used  to 
limit  participles,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs." 


What  are  classed  with  adverbs  of  manner?  What  are  modal 
ladverbs?  What  are  conjunctive  a,dverbs?  Are  adverbs  com- 
Ipared?  Compare  ill,  little,  far,  much,  well.  Parse  "most  ra- 
Ipidly,"  according  to  the  model. 

_    - 


126  Greene's  introduction, 

I  shall  go  before  you  arrive. 

Before  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time,  and  connects   the 
clause  *'  before  you  arinve*'  with  the  verb  shall  go.    Rule  XV. 

Parse  the  following  adverbs : — 

The  Athenians  were  always  seeking  some  new  thing 

Man  never  loses  the  sentiment  of  his  true  good. 

How  novel,  how  grand  the  spectacle  I 

There,  then,  she  had  found  a  grave. 

My  mother  died  when  I  was  very  young. 

Go,  where  glory  waits  thee. 

Kate  wept  bitterly. 

Where  shall  we  find  rest? 

Isabella  gladly  welcomed  the  early  violet. 

Henry  rises  very  early. 

The  prospect  is  extremely  beautiful. 


LESSON  XLVIII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  some  other  word ;  as,  "  He 
sailed  upon  the  ocean  in  a  ship." 

Rem. — The  preposition  always  shows  a  relation  between  two 
terms,  an  antecedent  and  a  subsequent.  The  subsequent  term 
is  called  the  object  of  the  preposition.  The  preposition  and 
object  united  form  a  dependent  element  of  the  sentence,  having 
the  antecedent  term  as  it?  principal.  When  the  dependent 
element  ic  joined  to  a  noun,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective; 

Parse  "before."  What  is  a  preposition?  What  is  the  object 
of  a  preposition  ?  What  do  the  preposition  and  its  object  form  ? 
What  do  they  express  when  joined  to  a  noun  ? 


LESSON    FORTY-EIGHTH. 


127 


I 


as,  The  rays  of  the  sun — Solar  rays.  When  joined  to  a  verb, 
adjective,  or  adverb,  the  dependent  phrase  is  usually  of  the 
nature  of  an  adverb ;  as,  The  case  was  conducted  with  skill — 
skilfully. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prepositions 
in  use : — 


aboard, 

before, 

for, 

through. 

about, 

behind. 

from. 

throughout, 

above, 

below. 

in,  into. 

till, 

according  to. 

beneath. 

'mid, 

to. 

across, 

beside,  or 

'midst, 

touching, 

after, 

'  besides, 

notwithstanding 

toward,  or 

against. 

between. 

of, 

towards. 

along, 

betwixt. 

off. 

under, 

amid,  or 

beyond, 

on. 

underneath, 

amidst. 

by.   • 

,  out  of, 

until. 

among,  (yr 

concerning. 

over. 

unto, 

amongst. 

down. 

past, 

up, 

around, 

during, 

regarding. 

upon. 

at. 

ere. 

respecting. 

with. 

athwart, 

except. 

round. 

within. 

bating, 

excepting. 

since, 

without 

\ 

MODEL. 

He  has  gone  to  New  York. 

To  (1)  is  a  preposition;  it  is  used  to  show  the  relation  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  some  other  word. 

(2)  It  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun  New  York  and 

the  verb  gone. 

(3)  Rule  XIII. — A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation 

of  its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  latter  depends. 


What  do  the  preposition  and  its  object  express  when  joined 
to  a  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb  ?     Give  the  list  of  prepositions. 


128  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


Parse  the  following  prepositions : — 

Cornelia  heard  the  birds  sing  in  the  morning. 
The  winds  will  come  from  the  distant  south. 
I  shall  be  Queen  of  the  May. 
The  hills  are  covered  with  a  carpet  of  green. 
We  shall  seek  the  early  fruits  in  the  sunny  valley. 
The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 
From  shore  to  shore,  it  was  free. 
On  the  shore  stands  a  lovely  cottage. 


LESSON   XLIX. 

CONJUNCTIONS.. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences, 
or  the  parts  of  sentences ;  as,  *'  The  horse  fell  over 
the  precipice,  but  the  rider  escaped."  ''  The  horse 
and  rider  fell  over  the  precipice.*' 

Rem. — A  pure  conjunction  forms  no  part  of  the  material  or 
substance  of  the  sentence.  Its  ofl5ce  is  simply  to  unite  the 
materials  into  a  single  structure  A  inixed  conjunction,  or 
connective,  forms  a  part  of  the  sentence,  and  at  the  same  time 
joins  the  parts  together;  as,  "  This  is  the  pencil  which  (both 
object  and  connective)  I  lost.'' 

All  connectives  (whether  pure  conjunctions  or  con- 
junctive words)  are  divided  into  two  classes — coordi- 
nate or  subordinate. 

Coordinate  connectives  join  similar  elements;  as, 
John  and  James  were  disciples. 

Here  John  and  Jame^  are  similar  in  construction,  and  have  a 
common  relation  to  the  predicate. 

What  is  a  conjunction  ?  How  are  they  divided  ?  What  do 
coordinate  connectives  join  ? 


LESSON    FORTY-NINTH.  129 

Subordinate  connectives  are  those  wMcli  join  dis- 
similar elements ;  as,  ^'  I  shall  go  when  the  stage 
arrives.'* 

Here  tf?7ie?i  joins  the  clause  when  the  stage  arrives^  a  depen* 
dent  expression,  to  its  principal,  the  verb  shall  go.  It  forms  a 
part  of  the  clause  which  it  connects. 

Coordinate  connectives  are  always  conjunctions, 
and  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : — 

1.  Copulative;  as,  arid,  also,  even. 

2.  Adverbial ;  as,  hut,  yet,  still,  however, 

3.  Alternative;  as,  or,  nor,  either ^  neither. 

Subordinate  connectives  are  also  divided  into  three 
classes : — 

1  Those  which  connect  substantive  clauses ;  as,  that,  that 
not. 

2.  Those  which  connect  adjective  clauses ;  as,  who,  whichf 
what,  that. 

3.  Those  which  connect  adverbial  clauses  ;  as — 
Place. —  Where,  whence,  whither,  wherever,  whithersoever. 
Time. —  When,  while,  before,  ere,  until,  till,  whenever,  whenso- 
ever. 

Cause. — For,  because,  as,  since,  lest,  that. 
Manner. — How,  so  as,  so  that. 

MODEL. 
Socrates  and  Plato  were  distinguished  philosophers. 

And  (1)  is  ^conjunction;  it  is  used  to  connect  sentences,  op 
the  parts  of  a  sentence. 
(2)  coordinate,  it  connects  similar  elements. 


What  do  subordinate  connectives  join  ?  How  are  coordinate 
connectives  divided  ?  How  are  subordinate  connectives  divided  ? 
Give  examples  of  each  kind. 


180  Greene's  introduction. 


(3)  It  connects  Socrates  and  Plato, 

(4)  Rule  XI.  —  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  join 

similar  elements. 

Either  Lucia  or  Julia  will  come. 

Either  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  (alternative),  used  as  corre 
lative  of  or. 

Or  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  (alternative),  and,  with  its  corre- 
lative eithevy  connects  Lucia  and  Julia,    Rule  XI. 

Parse  the  following  conjunctions : — 

Clouds  and  darkness  are  round  ahout  him. 
I  am  debtor  both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the  barbarians. 
Mordaunt  neither  spoke  nor  moved  after  his  fall. 
My  punishment  is  greater  than  I  can  bear. 
Thou  art,  and  wert,  and  shall  be  a  great,  life-giving,  life- sus- 
taining potentate. 

Oh  I  that  those  lips  had  language. 
I  hope  that  Edward  will  not  be  rash. 

Write    appropriate   connectives   in    place   of  the 
dashes  in  the  following : — 

you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  nothing, 

the  cat  is  away,  the  mice  will  play. 

I  shall  love  the  sea, it  is  his  grave. 

Samuel his  brother  came  to  town. 


LESSON   L. 

INTERJECTIONS. 


An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind ;  as,  ^'Alas  !  I 
have  chid  away  my  friend." 

What  is  an  interjection  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-FIRST.  131 

The  principal  interjections  are  — 

Iley,  hurrah,  huzza,  aha,  hah,  ah,  ho,  lo,  hallo,  fie,  pshaw 
tush,  alas,  woe,  alack,  0,  hist,  hush,  mum,  &c, 

MODEL. 

0  lightly,  lightly  tread. 

0  (1)  is  an  interjection,  it  expresses  some  strong  or  sudden 
emotion  of  the  mind. 

(2)  It  has  no  grammatical  relation  with  any  other  word. 

(3)  Rule, — The  nominative  case  independent,  and  the  inter- 

jection, have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

Parse  the  following  interjections : — 

Hark  I  they  whisper,  angels  say,  **  Sister  spirit!  come  away  I" 
Wo  for  my  vine-clad  home  1 
0  grave,  where  is  thy  victory  1 
Ah  me  1  how  sad  my  lot  I 


/V»/VA^V/V/N/>^V/Vr^'V/\/N/V/\/^A/V/W\A«>\AAA<\AAAA/»^SA/««^AA<WV 


SYNTAX. 


LESSON  LI. 

SENTENCES. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 
A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words ;  as : 
"The  winds  blow." 

Of  what  does  Syntax  treat  ?    What  is  a  sentence  ? 


132  Greene's  introduction. 

All  sentences  are  either  declarative^  interrogative^ 
imperative^  or  exclamatory, 

A  declarative  sentence  is  one  which  declares  some- 
thing ;  as,  "  The  truth  will  prevail.*' 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  which  asks  a  ques* 
tion;  as,  "  Wilt  thou  be  made  whole  V 

An  imperative  sentence  is  one  which  expresses  a 
command  ;  as,  "Put  up  thy  sword  into  the  sheath.*' 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  which  contains  an 
exclamation;  as,  ''  How  art  thou  fallen  !" 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in  these 
examples,  and  construct  or  select  others  like  them : — 

The  heat  is  oppressive. 
How  vivid  is  the  lightning  1 
Believe  ye,  that  I  can  do  this  t 
Children  obey  your  parents. 

Shall  the  Turk  still  pollute  the  soil  sanctified  by  the  brightest 
genius?  k  , 

LESSON  LII. 

PROPOSITIONS. 

Every  sentence  must  contain  at  least  one  principal 
proposition  ;  as,  "  The  Lord  reigneth.** 

Rem. — A  subordinate  proposition,  as,  **  If  he  come,"  is  not 
a  sentence,  but  only  a  part  or  element  of  a  sentence.     While 


Name  the  four  different  kinds  of  sentences.  What  is  a 
declarative  sentence?  An  interrogative?  An  imperative? 
An  exclamatory  ?     What  must  every  sentence  contain  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-SECOND.  138 

every  sentence  must  contain,  at  least,  one  independent  propo- 
sition, it  may  contain  any  number  of  others,  either  principal  or 
subordinate.  When  proposition?  are  thus  combined,  they  are 
called  clauses,  A  clause,  therefore,  is  always  a  proposition, 
but  a  proposition  is  not  always  a  clause ;  it  is  sometimes  an 
entire  sentence. 

A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a  subject  and  a 
predicate ;  as,  ^'  The  ocean  roars." 

The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed ; 
as,  ''The  Zz7z6S  fade." 

The  predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  sub- 
ject; as,  "The  waves  (iasA." 

Rem. — The  predicate  is  sometimes  that  which  is  denied  of  the 
subject;  as,  "The  door  is  not  shut."  Bat  to  deny  is  only  to 
affirm  a  negative.  In  general,  affirm  is  here  used  to  apply  to 
every  species  of  proposition,  interrogative,  imperative  and 
exclamatory,  as  well  as  declarative. 

The  subject  usually  represents  some  object,  and  the 
predicate  some  attribute  of  that  object;  as,  "The 
apple  is  sweet.'' 

Attributes  are  of  three  kinds : — 

1.  Those  which  denote  ttie  class  of  objects ,  as,  beaM,  bird, 
tree. 

2.  Those  which  denote  the  qualities  of  objects ;  as,  good^  old, 
sweet. 

3.  Those  which  denote  the  actio7is  of  objects ;  as,  ruUf  crawl, 

fly- 

An  attribute  may  be  represented  as  joined  to  an 
object  in  two  ways: — 


What  is  said  of  clauscv^^?  What  is  a  proposition  ?  What  \9 
the  subject?  The  predicate?  In  what  sense  is  the  word 
"  affirm  "  here  used  ?  What  do  the  subject  and  predicate  usu- 
ally represent  ?    How  mapy  kinds  of  attributes  are  there  ? 

12 


134  Greene's  introduction. 


1.  It  may  be  assumed  of  it ;  as,  blue  sky,  rough  sea,  poison- 
ous reptiles. 

2.  It  may  hQ  predicated  of  it;  as,  The  sky  is  blue;  the  sea  is 
rough;  reptiles  sltq  poisonous. 

When  an  attribute  is  assumed  of  an  object,  it  is 
said  to  modify  or  limit  it.  See  Lessons  V.,  VII.,  and 
IX. 

When  an  attribute  is  predicated  of  an  object,  the 
words  form  a  proposition.  See  Lessons  V.,  VII., 
and  IX. 

Rem. — The  predicate  consists  of  two  parts — some  form  of  the 
verb  "to  be"  called  the  copida,  and  the  attribute;  as,  "The 
fruit  is  ripe,**  These  two  parts  may  be  combined  in  one  word  ; 
the  predicate  is  then  always  a  verb,  which  is  itself  equivalent 
to  the  copula  and  attribute  ;  as,  The  winds  roar  =  are  roaring. 
So  that  the  predicate  is  either  a  verb,  or  it  contains  a  verb. 
See  Lesson  IX. 

Exercises. 

1.  Name  any  objects  which  contain  these  qualities : 

Yellow,  smooth,  cold,  pure,  clear,  wild,  heavy. 

Assume  and  then  predicate  them.  Tell  which  ex- 
amples form  propositions. 

2.  Name  any  qualities  which  belong  to  these  objects : 

Tree,  brook,  gold,  clouds,  sponge,  rose. 

Assume  and  then  predicate  as  above. 


In  how  many  ways  may  an  attribute  be  joined  to  an  object? 
When  the  attribute  is  predicated,  what  is  formed  ?  What  is 
said  when  the  attribute  is  assumed  ?  Of  how  many  parts  does 
the  predicate  consist  ?  What  remark  upon  the  predicate  when 
these  two  parts  are  combined  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-THIRD.  135 

3.  Point  to  any  five  objects  which  you  can  see,  and 
tell  the  class  to  which  they  belong,  remembering  that 
the  common  name  of  an  object  indicates  its  class. 
(See  Lesson  XV.)  Assume  and  predicate  each. 
Thus  :— 

This  object,  a  pencil.  This  object  is  a  pencil,  Charles,  a 
scholar,     Charles  is  a  scholar, 

4.  Name  any  appropriate  actions  for  the  following 
objects  : — 

Birds,  fishes,  children,  serpents,  dogs. 

Assume  and  predicate  these  actions  of  appropriate 
objects  : — 

Fly,  slide,  weave,  run,  play,  study,  drive. 

5.  Which  of  the  following  combinations  are  propo- 
sitions ?     Which  are  not  ? 

The  men  are  idle.  A  white  horse. 

The  setting  sun.  The  snow  is  falling. 

The  stars  twinkle.  Trees  falling. 

Pale  ink.  Ice  melts. 

Change  these  last  examples,  predicate  the  assumed, 
and  assume  the  predicated  attributes. 


LESSON   LIII 

CLASSES   OF    PROPOSITIONS   AND    SENTENCES. 

Propositions  are  divided  into  two  classes — principal 
and  subordinate. 

Into  how  many  classes  are  propositions  divided  ? 


136  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

A  principal  proposition  contains  the  principal  or 
leading  assertion:  it  is  that  on  which  the  subordinate 
depends;  as:  '*  When  ^^rmg  Qom^^^  the  flowers  will 
bloom.** 

A  subordinate  proposition  is  one  which,  by  means 
of  a  subordinate  connective,  depends  upon  some  part 
of  the  principal  proposition  ;  as  :  "  JVJien  spring 
comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom." 

Exercise. 

Separate  the  following  sentences  into  their  propo- 
sitions, and  tell  which  are  principal,  and  which  are 
subordinate  : — 

The  vessel  which  he  has  so  long  expected,  has  arrived. 
Peter  the  Hermit,  vrho  preached  the  first  crusade,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Amiens,  in  France. 

I  thought  that  Eugenia  was  sincere. 

While  I  was  musing,  the  fire  burned. 

I  will  write  when  ray  mother  has  arrived. 

I  shall  not  sail  for  Europe  until  the  winter  has  passed. 

Norman  has  lost  the  watch  which  his  father  sent  him. 

Where  thou  goest,  I  will  go. 

Propositions  of  the  same  kind,  that  is,  both  princi- 
pal or  both  subordinate,  are  said  to  be  similar;  those 
of  diiferent  kinds  are  said  to  be  dissimilar. 

A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  proposition ; 
as  :  "  The  wind  blows.** 

A  complex  sentence  contains  two  or  more  dissimilar 

What  is  a  principal  proposition?  What  is  a  subordinate 
proposition  ?  What  are  similar  propositions  ?  Dissimilar  ? 
What  does  a  simple  sentence  contain  ?     A  complex  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-FOURTH.  137 


propositions ;  as  :  "  When  the  wind  blows,  the  trees 
bend." 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  similar 
propositions;  as:  ''The  winds  blow  and  the  trees 
bend." 

Exercise. 

Tell  which  sentences  in  the  following  exercise  are 
simple,  which  are  complex,  and  which  are  compound : 

The  gathering  darkness  of  night  comes  on. 

If  it  should  storm,  the  lecture  will  be  postponed. 

Herman  left  the  home  of  his  childhood,  and  he  returned  no 
more. 

The  waters  dance  gaily  along. 

The  dews  of  night  began  to  fall,  and  the  moon  silvered  the 
ruined  abbey. 

The  scenes  which  we  loved  in  childhood,  are  still  dear  to  us. 


LESSON   LIV. 

ELEMENTS   OF   SENTENCES. 

The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  its  component  parts, 
each  standing  for  an  idea  and  its  7'elation  ;  as  :  "  The 

shepherd  gave  the  alarm  when  he 

discovered  the  approach  of  the  wolf." 

Note. — SJieplierd,  in  this  example,  becomes  an  element  only 
when  it  is  put  in  relation  to  gave.  So  gave  becomes  an  element 
by  virtue  of  its  relation  to  shepherd;  and  so  of  the  others.   The 

What  does  a  compound  sentence  contain?  What  are  the 
elements  of  a  sentence  ?  Explain  the  general  method  of  ana- 
lyzing a  sentence. 

"12* 


138  Greene's  introduction. 


learner  should  bear  in  mind  that  a  thought  is  analyzed,  when 
separated  into  its  several  ideas ;  a  sentence  is  analyzed  when 
separated  into  the  expressions  for  those  ideas.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence  above,  we  have  four  principal  ideas  and  the  same 
number  of  expressions:  Who  gave?  The  shepherd,  What 
did  the  shepherd  do  ?  Gave,  What  did  he  give  ?  The  alarm. 
When  did  he  give  it  ?  When  he  discovered  the  approach  of  the 
wolf.  The  learner  should  unite  in  one  group  all  the  words 
which  express  the  idea. 

1.  All  elements  are  divided  according  to  their 
rank  or  relation  to  each  other,  mio  principal  and  sub- 
ordinate  ;  and  when  two  of  the  same  kind  are  united, 
they  are  coordinate  with  each  other. 

Thus,  every  sentence  must  have  a  subject  and  a  predicate  ; 
hence  these  two  htq  principal;  as:  "Pupils  study."  A  sen- 
tence wiayalso  have  an  adjective  element,  an  objective  element, 
and  an  adverbial  element.  These  three  depend  upon  and  mo- 
dify the  other  two  ;  hence  they  are  subordinate;  as  :  Faithful 

PUPILS STUDY grammar carefidly.     It  will 

be  seen  that  a  sentence  may  contain  five  distinct  elements,  two 
principal,  and  three  subordinate. 

The  influence  which  one  element  has  over  another 
in  construction  may  be  expressed  by  the  following 
rules : — 

Rule  I. — The  principal  element  always  controls  or 
governs  the  subordinate. 

That  is,  it  causes  the  subordinate  either  to  agree  with  itself, 
or  to  take  some  particular  case^  mode,  or  tense.  The  former  is 
QoWedi  agreement ;  the  \2itiev,  government.     Thus,  the  adjective 


How  are  elements  divided  according  to  their  rank  or  rela- 
tion ?  What  are  coordinate  elements  ?  What  are  the  princi- 
pal elements  of  a  sentence?  Rule  I.  How  does  the  principal 
element  control  the  subordinate  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-FOURTH.  139 


implying  number  agrees  in  number  with  the  noun  ;  as:  "  These 
(not  this)  books  ;''  the  verb  agrees  in  nuviher  and^;e?*5on  with 
the  subject;  as;  "I  walk ;'^  the  predicate  noun  or  pronoun 
agrees  in  case  with  the  subject;  as,  "/  am  A^/'  So  also  the 
noun  in  apposition.  The  government  of  the  superior  term  is 
effected  either  directly;  as,  "  Solomon's  temple  •/' — or  by  means 
of  a  connective;  as,  "The  temple  of  SolomonJ*  So  also  of  the 
objective  case,  "  "We  saw  Jiimj''  "  We  looked  at  liimj^  So  of  the 
subjunctive  mode,  **  Should  it  raiUj  I  shall  not  go;"  ^* If  it 
should  rain,  I  shall  not  go." 

EuLE  II. — The  subordinate  element  always  modi- 
fies or  limits  the  principal. 

That  is,  it  restricts  a  general  to  a  particular  application  ;  as, 
''The  people  (not  q\\ people,  but  those)  of  MaineJ* 

Rule  III. — Coordinate  elements  neither  govern 
nor  modify  each  other. 

That  is,  the  one  in  no  way  affects  the  case,  mode,  tense,  num- 
ber, person,  agreement,  or  application  of  the  other;  as,  "He 
informed  you  and  meJ*  Here,  me  is  not  in  the  objective, 
because  it  is  coordinate  with  y(M,  but  because  it  is  the  direct 
object  of  informed. 

Note. — These  three  general  principles  involve  nearly  all  the 
particular  rules  of  Syntax. 

2.  All  elements  are  divided  according  to  their  na- 
ture and  use  into  substayitive,  adjective,  and  adverbial. 

Examples. 

WORDS.  PHRASES.  CLAUSES. 

Subsianfe.   Song,  To  sing,  TJiat  one  should  sing* 

Adjective.     Wise  man.      Man  ofioisdom.  Man  who  is  wise. 
Adverbial,    Kismg  early.  At  sunrise.  When  the  sim  rises. 


Give  Rule  II.     Rule  III.     How  are  all  elements  divided 
according  to  their  nature  and  use?    Give  the  examples. 


140  Greene's  introduction. 


Note. — To  classify  elements  according  to  their  nature  and  use, 
the  learner  has  only  to  ask,  in  case  of  a  word,  what  part  ot 
speech  it  is ;  and  in  case  of  a  group  of  words,  what  part  of 
speech  it  would  be,  if  the  same  idea  were  expressed  by  one  word. 

Exercise. 

Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  elements  in  these 
examples,  and  tell  which  are  principal  and  which  are 
subordinate: — 

Clinton  will  go  to  the  sea-side  to-morrow. 

The  splashing  surf  is  refreshing. 

Yesterday,  the  word  of  Gassar  might  have  stood  against  the 
world. 

Times  of  greatest  calamity  and  confusion  have  been  produc- 
tive of  the  greatest  minds. 

The  hall  of  the  mansion  is  spacious. 

The  lawn  in  front  extends  to  the  sea. 

The  restless  waves  over  which  Sir  ^yilliam  Pepperell  sought 
fortune,  still  glitter  in  the  sunbeams. 

As  we  ascend  the  staircase,  paintings  of  angels'  heads  deco- 
rate the  hall  window. 

Error  is  a  hardy  plant ;  it  fiourisheth  in  every  soil. 

Few  and  precious  are  the  words  which  the  lips  of  Wisdom 
utter. 


LESSON   LV. 

ELEMENTS     CONTINUED. 

3.  Elements  are  divided,  according  to  their  form, 
into  the^rs^,  second^  and  third  classes. 

How  are  elements  divided  according  to  their  form  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-FIFTH.  141 

A  simple  element  of  the  first  class  is  a  single  word  represent- 
ing both  an  idea  and  its  relation ;    as,  Good  boys  — — 

study grammar  carefully.  Here  each  word  repre- 
sents not  only  a  distinct  idea,  but  also  its  relation  to  another 
idea. 

A  simple  element  of  the  second  class  is  o.  phrase  consisting 
of  two  words,  one  representing  an  idea,  and  the  other  its  rela- 
tion ;  as,  "  John  lives in  hopeJ^    Here,  if  we  leave  ^ut  in, 

the  relation  will  not  be  represented  ;  ''John  lives  liope  ;^^  if  we 
leave  out  ^ope,  the  idea  will  be  wanting,  "John  lives  tW 
Both  must  be  represented  by  separate  words,  in  the  simplest 
possible  form  of  the  element.  Hence,  the  difference  between 
an  element  of  the  first,  and  an  element  of  the  second  class. 
Simple  elements  of  the  second  class  are  usually  the  injinitive, 
or  the  preposition  and  its  object  taken  together.  The  predicate, 
when  composed  of  the  copula  and  attribuiey  is  properly  an  ele- 
ment of  the  second  class. 

A  simple  element  of  the  third  class  is  a  clause  consisting  of  a 
p'oposition  to  represent  an  idea  and  a  connective,  to  show  its 

relation  ;  as,  "  I  know that  he  went,**    Compare  this  with 

the  two  preceding. 

Exercise. 
Classify  the  elements  in  the  following  examples  :— 

James  walked  through  the  garden. 
Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes,  he  became  poor. 
A  peace  which   consults  the  good  of  both  parties,  is  the 
surest,  because  both  parties  are  interested  in  its  preservation. 
The  army  marched  slowly  forward. 
The  Greeks  took  Troy  by  stratagem. 
Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

What  is  a  simple  element  of  the  first  class?  What  is  a 
simple  element  of  the  second  class?  What  are  they  usually? 
What  is  a  simple  element  of  the  third  class  ? 


142  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


4.  Elements  are  divided  according  to  their  ntate  or 
condition^  into  simple^  complex^  or  compound. 

A  simple  element  is  a  single  expression  for  an  idea  and  its 
relation,  without  modification  or  addition.     It  may  be  either 

of  the  first,  second,  or  third  class ;  as,  "  We  left  early 

—  at  dawn as  day  dawned. 

The  unmodified  subject  is  called  the  simple  or  grammatical 
subject;  the  unmodified  predicate,  the  simple  or  grammatical 
predicate,  and  so  of  all  the  other  elements. 

A  complex  element  is  a  simple  element  modified  by  one  or 
more  elements  subordinate  to  it.  It  is  of  the  first,  second,  or 
third  class  when  the  simple  element  called  its  hasis^  is  of  the 

first,  second,  or  third  class;  as.  We  left vei^y  early  —  at 

early  dawn  —  as  day  first  dawned  in  the  east.  (Compare  these 
examples  with  the  preceding.) 

The  modified  subject  is  called  the  compUx  or  logical  subject, 
and  so  of  all  other  elements. 

A  compound  element  is  the  union  of  two  or  more  coordinate, 
simple,  or  complex  elements.  The  component  parts  may  be 
either  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  class  ;  as.  We  are  em- 
ployed—  early  and  late.  We  are  employed  —  at  noon  and  at 
night.  We  were  travelling  —  when  the  wind  was  blowing 
furiously,  and  when  the  storm  was  heating  against  cur  carriage. 

The  coordinate  subjects  taken  together  are  called  the  com- 
pound subject;  and  so  of  all  the  other  elements. 

Exercise. 

Classify  the  following  elements : — 

The  dying  king  tried  every  remedy  in  vain. 
Clouds  and  darkness  are  round  about  him. 


How  are  elements  divided  according  to  their  state  or  condi- 
tion? What  is  a  simple  element?  What  is  the  simple  sub- 
ject? Predicate?  What  is  a  complex  element  ?  What  is  the 
modified  subject  called  ?  What  is  a  compound  element  ?  What 
ia  the  compound  subject  ? 


LESSON   FIFTY-SIXTH.  143 

Righteousness  and  truth  are  the  habitation  of  his  throne. 
Eva  accepted  the  invitation  with  pleasure. 
With  trembling  limbs  and  faltering  steps,  ho  departed  from 
his  desolate  home 

The  lever  vyhich  moves  the  world  of  mind,  is  the  printing 
press. 

We  closed  the  dim  and  lifeless  eye, 

We  smoothed  the  parted  hair ; 
And  decked  the  sleeping  form  with  flowers, 
But  no  bright  soul  was  there. 


LESSON  LVI. 

DEFINITIONS    AND    RULES. 

To  construct  a  sentence,  is  to  combine  its  several 
elements. 

To  analyze  a  sentence,  is  to  separate  it  into  its 
several  elements. 

To  classify  sentences,  is  to  tell  whether  they  are 
(1)  simple,  complex  J  or  compound;  (2)  declarative^  in- 
terrogative,  imperative^  or  exclamatory. 

To  transform  a  sentence,  is  to  change  its  form, 
either  by  altering^  transposing^  suppressing,  or  sup- 
plying any  of  its  elements,  without  materially  changing 
the  meaning. 

To  reconstruct  a  sentence,  is  to  express  the  same 
thought  in  other  words. 

What  is  it  to  construct  a  sentence?  To  analyze  if?  To 
classify  sentences  ?  To  transform  a  sentence  ?  To  /econ  • 
struct  it? 


144  Greene's  introduction. 

To  parse  a  sentence,  is  to  name  the  class  (parts  of 
speech)  of  each  of  its  words,  and  to  give  their  modifi- 
cations, relations,  agreement,  or  government,  and  the 
rules  for  their  construction. 

To  correct  a  sentence,  is  to  alter  it  so  as  to  make 
it  conform  to  the  rules  of  construction. 

The  Rules  of  Construction  are  the  principles  esta- 
blished by  the  usages  of  the  language.  They  are  the 
following : — 

Rule  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  propo- 
sition must  be  in  the  nominative 'case. 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  pro- 
position after  the  finite  verb  to  be^  or  any  intransitive  or  passive 
verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  ease. 

Rule  III.  A.  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
gender,  number,  and  person. 

Rule  IV.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person. 

Rule  V.  An  adjective  or  participle  must  belong  to  some 
noun  or  pronoun;  as,  "The  guilty  man;"  "The  man  was 
guiliyJ'    Or,  more  specifically, — 

(1.)  An  adjective  or  participle  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  pro- 
position after  the  verb  to  be,  or  any  intransitive  or  passive  verb, 
belongs  to  the  subject;  as,  "The  tree  is  ialU^  "To  see  the 
sun  is  pleasant.'*  "Where  the  funds  wiH  be  obtained  is 
doubtful." 

(2.)  An  adjective  or  participle  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a 
noun,  belongs  to  the  noun  which  it  modifies  ;  as,  "  An  upright 
judge."     "  Five  boxes."     "  TJic'good  old  man." 

Rule  VI.     A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify 


What  is  it  to  parse  a  sentence?     To  correct  it?     Give  Rule 
I.     Rule  II.     Rule  III.     Rule  IV.     Rule  V.     Rule  VI. 


LESSON    FIFTY-SIXTH.  145 

another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same 
case. 

Rule  VII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  another  noun 
by  denoting  possession^  must  be  in  the  possessive  case. 

Rule  YIII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  tran- 
sitive verb,  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  IX.  Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  participles, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Rule  X.  The  nominative  case  independent^  and  the  interjec- 
tion, have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
sentence. 

Rule  XI.  Coordiiiate  conjunctions  are  used  to  connect 
similar  elements. 

Rule  XII.  When  a  verb  or  pronoun  relates  to  two  or  more 
nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  conjunction, — 

(1.)  If  it  agrees  with  them  taken  conjointly^  it  must  be  in 
the  plural  number. 

(2.)  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it  must  be 
of  the  same  number  as  that  which  stands  next  to  it. 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must  take  the 
number  of  that  one. 

Rule  XIII.  A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation  of 
its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  latter  depends. 

Rule  XIV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  pre- 
position, itiust  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  XV.  Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  join  dis- 
similar elements. 

Rule  XVI.  The  infinitive  has  the  construction  of  the  ncmn^ 
with  the  signification  and  limitations  of  the  verb,  and  when 
dependent,  is  governed  by  the  word  whi(5h  it  limits. 

Rule  XVII.  PartkipUs  have  the  construction  of  adjectives 
and  nouns,  and  are  limited  like  verbs. 


Give  Rule  VII.  Rule  VIII.  Rule  IX.  Rule  X.  Rule  XL 
Rule  XII.  Rule  XIII.  Rule  XIV.  Rule  XV.  Rule  XVL 
Rule  XVII. 

13  K  "= 


146  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


LESSON  LVII. 

SIMPLE  SENTENCES ELEMENTS  OF  THE  FIRST  CLArSB — 

WORDS. 

An  element  of  the  first  class  is  a  single  word. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   THE   SUBJECT. 

The  subject  is  always  put  in  construction  with  the 
predicate,  and  by  the  following  rule : — 

Rule  I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as, 
"  Caesar  conquered  Gaul." 

Rem. — This  rule  is  universal.  Whatever  is  used  as  the  sub- 
ject, whether  a  letter,  a  syllable,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  noun,  and  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Caution  and  Exercises. 

Caution. — Never  use  the  ohjective  as  the  s^ihject  of  a  finite  verb. 
Say,  J  did  it — not  Me  did  it. 

I.  Construction. — Construct  five  other  sentences 
like  each  of  the  following  in  (1)  and  (2) : — 

(1.)  (Subject  aiid predicate  expressed.)  Time  flics.  She  reads. 
Ida  walks.     Jesus  wept     Kings  reign.     Fruit  ripens.     I  live. 

(2.)  (Sub.  understood.)     Come.   Study.   Awake.   Arise.   Go. 
See.     Return.     Behold. 
Model. — "  Come"  is  a  sentence ;  its  subject  is  understood.  I 
"  thoUf^*  **  you^'^  or  "  yeJ^  Thus,  supply  *'  Come  thou." 


With  what  is  the  subject  always  put  in  construction  ?    Give 
Rule  I.     The  remark  upon  it.     The  caution. 


LESSON    FIFTY-SEVENTH.  147 

(3.)  (Subject  wanting.)    buzz,  study.   drink. 

play.     frisk. 

Model. — "  Buzz ''  is  not  a  sentence ;  it  has  no  subject.  I 
add  "  bees."     Thus,  "  Bees  buzz." 

(4.)  [Parts  to  he  combined,)  Wind  roar;  he  speak;  she  sit ; 
it  snow. 

Model. — "  "Wind  roar  "  is  not  a  sentence ;  the  parts  are  not 
combined.  I  change  **  wind  "  to  "  winds.'*  Thus,  "  Winds 
roar." 

2.  Analysis. — Analyze  the  preceding  sentences. 

Model.  — "  Time  llies "  is  a  sentence ;  it  is  a  thought  ex- 
pressed in  words.  "  Time  "  is  the  subject ;  it  is  that  of 
which  something  is  affirmed.  "Flies"  is  the  predicate; 
it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

3.  Parsing. — Parse  the  subjects  in  the  preceding 
examples.     (See  Model,  p.  77.) 

4.  Classification. — Classify  (1)  the  preceding 
sentences;   (2)  their  elements. 

Thus,  **  Time  flies  "  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence  ;  sim- 
ple^ it  contains  but  one  proposition  ;  declarative,  it  declares 
something.  "Come"  is  a  simple,  imperative  sentence. 
Why  ?  The  subject  and  predicate  in  each  is  an  element 
of  the  first  class,  each  being  a  single  word  expressing  an 
idea  and  its  relation. 

Note. — Classification,  analysis,  and  parsing  may  be  com- 
bined. Thus,  **  Time  flies  "  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence. 
"  Time  "  is  the  subject,  and  "  flies"  is  the  predicate  ;  both  ele- 
ments of  the  first  class.     "  Time"  is  a  common  noun,  &c. 

6.  Transformation. — Transform  the  preceding 
sentences. 


148  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

(1.)  Change  them  to  interrogative.     Thus,  "  Does  time  fly  ?*' 
(2.)  Change  them  to  imperative,  and  point  out  the  transpo- 
sitimis.     Thus,  "  Fly  thou,  time." 

(3.)  Change  them  to  exclamatory.     "  How  time  flies  I" 
(4.)  In  (2),  suppress  the  subject  and  nominative  independent. 
Thus,  "Fly." 

(5.)  Change  the  number,  person,  and  gender  (when  it  can 
be  done)  of  the  subjects,  and  explain  the  consequent  changes 
in  the  predicate.  Substitute  pronouns  for  each  of  the  subject- 
nouns,  and  explain  their  agreement  by  Rule  III. 

6.  Correction.  —  Correct  by  the  Caution  the 
following  examples : — 

Claud  and  me  are  going  together.     Ilim  that  is  studious  will 

improve.     Lionel  will  find  the  lost  lamb  sooner  than  me.   Who 

told  you  that  story?     Ilim  and  her.     I  knew  it  as  well  as  her. 

Them  are  the  books  I  wanted.   Did  they  say  whom  was  coming  ? 

Model. — "Claud  and  me  are  going  together"  is  incorrect, 

because  the  objective  pronoun  me  is  made  the  subject  of 

the  verb  **  are  going."     It  should  be  (see  Caution)  "  Claud 

and  I  are  going  together." 

Correct  any  improper  expressions  which  you  have 
heard  to-day. 


LESSON  LVIII. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   THE   PREDICATE. 

The  predicate  is  put  in  construction  with  the  sub- 
ject by  one  of  the  following  rules : — 

Rule  II. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute 
of  a  proposition  after  the  finite  verb  ^'  to  be,"  or  any 

With  what  is  the  predicate  put  in  construction  ?  Give  Rule 
II. 


LESSON    FIFTY-EIGHTH.  149 


intransitive  or  passive  verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative 
case;  as,  "ItisAe;"  "  Thej  are  philosophers.'* 

Rule  V.     Specific  Rule  (I.) 

An  adjective  used  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition 
after  the  finite  verb  "  to  be/'  or  any  intransitive  or 
passive  verb,  belongs  to  the  subject ;  as,  "  The  war 
was  sanguinary  J* 

Rule  IV. — The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject 
in  number  and  person;  as,  "I  am;**  "Thou  art 
sitting,** 

Rule  IL — Caution  and  Exercises. 

Caution,  Never  use  the  objective  as  the  attribute.  Say  "  It 
ia  //'  not  "  It  is  me/' 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  follow- 
ing (in  1),  and  fill  the  blanks  : 

(1.)  {Sub.  andpred.  expressed.)  Gold  is  a  metal.  It  is  she. 
It  is  I.     Panama  is  an  isthmus. 

(2.)  {Subject  wanting.)   is  an  island.     is  he.     

is  a  merchant. 

(3.)  {Attribute  wanting.)    Boston  is  a .     Borneo  is  an 

.     It  is . 

(4.)  {Copula  wanting.)   George ; my  brother.     Paul 

an  apostle.    Nero a  tyrant. 

2.  Analyze,  classify,  and  parse  the  foregoing  sen- 
tences. 

Model. — "Gold  is  a  metal,"  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence. 
Why?  "Gold"  is  the  subject,  and  "is  a  metal"  is  the 
predicate.    Why?     "Is"  is  the  copula,  and  "metal"  is 


Give  Special  Rule.     Rule  IV.    The  caution  under  Rule  IL 
— 


150  Greene's  introduction. 

the  attribute*  "Gold''  is  a  common  noun,  &c.  (Model, 
p.  140.)  "Is"  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  Ac. 
(Model,  p.  140.)  "Metal"  is  a  common  noun,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and  nominative  case. 
It  is  used  as  the  attribute  after  "  is,"  according  to  Rule  II. 

8.  Transform  any  of  the  foregoing  examples,  as 
in  the  previous  Lesson. 

4.     Correct  the  following  examples  : — 

It  is  me.  Whom  is  it?  It  is  him.  Whom  do  you  think  it 
is?     It  is  not  them. 

Rule  V.     Special  Rule  (1.) — Exercise. 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  follow- 
ing :— 

Delays  are  dangerous.  George  was  lame.  They  will  be 
rich.  He  might  have  been  deceitful.  We  were  successful. 
AVho  was  merciful  ?  Be  active.  Will  they  be  peaceful  ?  Be 
content. 

Note. — Let  the  Teacher,  if  he  deems  it  necessary,  add  other 
examples  with  the  subject,  attribute,  or  copula  wanting.  Let 
fhe  pupils  be  required  to  use  adjectives  as  attributes  in  propo- 
sitions of  their  own. 

2.  Analyze,  classify,  and  parse  the  preceding 
examples : 

Model.  —  "Be  active"  is  a  simple,  imperative  sentence. 
Why  ?  "  Thou  "  understood  is  the  subject.  Why  ?  "  Be 
active  ''  is  the  predicate,  of  which  "  be  ''  is  the  copula  and 
"  active ''  the  attribute.     "  Be  "  is  an  irregular,  intransitive 

*  The  predicate,  when  formed  of  the  copula  and  attribute,  is 
properly  an  element  of  the  second  class,  being  2^  phrase.  It  is 
most  conveniently  discussed  here,  but  will  be  found  n  its 
proper  place  hereafter. 


LESSON    FIFTY-EIGHTH.  151 


verb,  imperative  mode,  present  tense,  secor.d  person  sin- 
gular, and  agrees  with  *'thou,''  understood.  (Rule  IV.) 
**  Active"  is  an  adjective  used  as  the  attribute  after  **  be," 
and  belongs  to  "thou,"  understood.  (Rule  V.)  Special 
Rule  (1),  *'An  adjective  used  as  the  attribute,"  &c. 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  foregoing  examples  as  in 
the  previous  Lessons. 

Rule  IV. — Cautions  and  Exercises. 

Caution  I.  Avoid  the  use  of  a  singular  verb  with  a  plural 
subject^  or  a  plural  verb  with  a  singular  subject.  Say,  "  Where 
were  you  ?  Not,  "  Where  was  you."  "  Each  of  his  brothers 
was  well."    Not,  "  each  were  well." 

Caution  II.  Be  careful  not  to  use  the  wrong  verb,  as,  Bet  for 
sit;  lay /or  lie;  come /or  go  ;  nor  the  wrong  form,  as,  done  for 
did;  wrote /or  written ;  nor  the  wrong  tense,  as,  see  for  saw; 
give  for  gave;  nor  improper  contractions,  as,  ain't /or  are  not. 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Water  flows.  Kings  have  reigned.  Vice  degrades.  Will 
winter  come  ?  Read.  James  may  have  written.  Isabel  sings. 
Begone,  wretch  I 

Note. — Let  the  Teacher  require  other  examples,  if  necessary, 
giving  the  subjects,  and  leaving  the  predicates  blank,  <s;c.  See 
previous  lessons. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding 
examples ;  also,  those  you  have  constructed. 

Note. — For  models  see  the  preceding. 

3.  Transform  the  preceding  sentences.     Change 

Give  Rule  IV.     Caution  I.    Caution  II. 


152  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


the  7nodes,  tenses,  and  forms  of  the  verbs.     Give  a 
synopsis  of  the  verbs. 

4.  Correct  (Caution  I.)  the  following  examples : 

There's  ten  of  us  going.     Was  you  sheltered  from  the  rain  ? 
I  Henry  need  not  be  so  positive.     Randolph  dare  not  do  wrong. 
Circumstances   alters   cases.     A   number  of  spectators   were 
already  there.     The  captain,  with  all  the  crew,  were  lost. 

5.  Correct  (Caution  II.)  the  following  examples : 

I  seen  Peter  when  he  done  it.  Amanda  had  broke  my  pen- 
cil. Tell  the  boys  to  set  still.  The  cat  laid  down  by  the  fire. 
I  didn't  meant  to  done  it.  Ella  is  going  to  lay  down.  Augus- 
tus has  wrote  his  letter.  Ain't  it  queer  1  Ain't  they  ever  going 
home  ?     Eliza  knowed  her  spelling  lesson  better  than  Joseph. 


LESSON  LIX. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   THE   ADJECTIVE   ELEMENT. 

The  adjective  element  is  put  in  construction  with 
a  noun  or  pronoun. 

Note. — The  adjective  element  of  the  sentence  is  put  in  con- 
struction with  the  subject. 

When  the  adjective  element  is  an  adjective,  it  is 
subject  to  the  following  rule : — 

Special  Rule  (2). 

{^See  Rule  V.)  An  adjective  or  participle  used  to  I 
limit  or  qualify  a  noun,  belongs  to  the  noun  which  it 
modifies.  i 

With  what  is  the  adjective  clement  put  in  construction  ?  Rule 
V.  (Special  2)  ?  ! 


LESSON    FIFTY-NINTH.  153 

Rem.  1. — The  limiting  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  the 
qualifying ;  as,  **  This  old  man ;"  "  This  valuable  hint." 

Rem.  2. — A  or  an  belongs  to  nouns  in  the  singular  number  ; 
as,  "^  book ;"  "  an  apple."  But  before  few,  hundred  and 
thousand,  it  seems  to  belong  to  a  plural  noun ;  as,  **A  hundred 
ships;"  "A/et(?men;"  ^^ A  thousand  ^oxxn^s J' 

Rem.  3. — The  belongs  to  nouns  either  singular  or  plural ;  as, 
"  The  man ;  the  men." 

When  the  adjective  element  is  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
it  is  subject  to  the  following  rules : — 

Rule  VI. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or 
identify  another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposi- 
tion in  the  same  case ;  as,  "  William  the  conqueror 
defeated  Harold  the  Saxon  hingJ^ 

Rule  VII.— A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  an- 
other noun  by  denoting  possession^  must  be  in  the 
possessive  case;  as,  '' Stephen's  courage  failed;*'* 
"  Whose  book  is  this  V 

Rem. — "When  two  or  more  possessive  nouns  are  connected 
cobrdinately,  if  they  imply  the  possession  of  ane  object  in 
common,  the  sign  is  applied  only  to  the  last;  as,  *' Little  and 
Brown's  store  ;"  but,  if  they  imply  the  possession  of  different 
objects  of  the  same  name,  the  possessive  sign  should  be  applied 
to  each ;  as,  "I  have  an  Emerson^ s  and  a  Greenleafs  Arith- 
metic." 

Rule  V.     Special  (2). — Cautions  and  Exercise. 

Caution  I. — Never  use  "  a"  befoi^e  a  word  beginning  with  the 
scmid  of  a  vowel,  nor  "  an''  before  a  word  begirming  with  the 
sound  of  a  consonant.     Say,  an  apple — not  a  apple. 

Give  Remark  1.  Remark  2.  Remark  3.  Give  Rule  VI. 
Rule  Vll.    Give  Caution  I.  under  Rule  V. 


154  Greene's  introduction. 

Caution  II. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  plural  adjective  to  limit  a 
singular  noun.     Say,  That  sort  of  people — not,  those  sort. 

Caution  III. — Never  use  the  pronoun  ^^  them'*  for  the  adjective 
**  thoseJ*     Say,  Those  books — not,  them  books. 

Caution  IV. — Avoid  the  use  of  the  adjective  for  the  adverb. 
Say,  Speak  promptly — not,  prompt. 

1.  Construct  other  examples  like  each  of  the 
following :—  - 

(1.)  [One  limiting  adjective.) — This  man  came.  Five  dogs 
ran.     The  ink  fades.     Some  scholars  study. 

(2.)  (One  qualifying  adjective.). —  Old  wood  burns.  Wise 
men  err.     Wicked  men  fear.     Cold  winter  comes. 

(3.)  (Two  limiting.)—  The  firyt  dawn  appeared.  The  two 
travellers  returned.     The  second  class  recites. 

(4.)  (One  Urn,  and  one  qual.)  —  Every  new  lesson  puzzles. 
Any  good  book  instructs.  Many  old  houses  fell.  The  new 
toy  pleases. 

(5.)  (Two  qualifying.) — Good  little  children  obey.  Pretty 
wild  flowers  grew. 

(6.)  (One  Urn.  and  tiDO  qual.) — The  little  feathered  songster 
warbles.     That  ambitious  young  man  excels. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  foregoing 
examples. 

Model. — "  Cold  winter  comes,''  is  a  simple  declarative  sen- 
tence. Why?  "Winter"  is  the  simple  subject ;  it  is  the 
subject  without  modification  or  addition.  **  Comes ''  is 
the  predicate.  Why?  Both  are  elements  of  the  first  class. 
Why  ?  "  Cold  winter  "  is  the  complex  subject ;  it  is  the 
simple  subject  with  all  its  modifications.  "Winter''  is 
limited  by  **  cold,"  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the  first 
class?  It  shows  what  kind  of  winter  it  is.  "  Cold"  is  a 
•  qualifying  adjective  of  the  positive  degree.  See  Model, 
p.  82. 


Give  Caution  II.     Caution  III.     Caution  IV. 


LESSON    FIFTY-NINTH.  155 

3.  Transform  the  foregoing  sentences,  as  in  pre- 
vious Lessons. 

4.  Correct  the  following  examples  : — 

(1.)  (Caution  I.)  He  wore  an  uniform  at  the  ball.  Arnold 
was  not  a  honorable  man.  I  do  not  like  such  an  one  as  that. 
This  is  an  hard  saying.     Hugh  has  been  gone  a  hour. 

(2.)  (Caution  II.)  I  do  not  like  those  kind  of  words.  The 
lot  is  fifty  foot  wide.     We  went  about  six  mile  an  hour. 

(3.)  (Caution  III.)  Tell  them  boys  to  be  still.  Them  ap- 
ples are  quite  ripe.  Them  are  the  keys.  Harry  is  fond  of 
them  things. 

(4.)  (Caution  IV.)  Beatrice  speaks  Italian  fluent,  and  plays 
the  harp  beautiful.  The  stream  flows  silent  on.  I  am  exceed- 
ing sorry  that  it  was  not  ready  sooner. 

Rule  VI.    Exercises. 

1.  Construct  two  other  examples  like  each  of  the 
following : — 

(1.)  [Simple  element.)  King  Latinus  ruled.  Queen  Mary 
reigned.  President  Taylor  died.  General  Washington  com- 
manded. 

(2.)  [Complex  element.)  Bunyan,  the  distinguished  author, 
endured.  Demosthenes,  the  celebrated  orator,  declaimed. 
Arnold,  the  base  traitor,  escaped. 

(3.)  [Compound  element.)  The  Presidents,  Washington,  Jef- 
ferson, Madison,  Monroe,  and  Tyler,  were  Virginians.  The 
sovereigns,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  united  Castile  and  Arragon. 

4.  ( Complex  and  compound  element.)  Those  sisters,  the  cruel 
Mary  and  the  sagacious  Elizabeth,  were  queens  of  England. 

3.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding 
examples. 


It 


156  Greene's  introduction. 

Model.  —  "  Arnold,  the  base  traitor,  escaped,"  is  a  simple 
declarative  sentence.  "Arnold"  is  the  simple,  and  "Ar- 
nold the  base  traitor  "  is  the  complex  subject.  "  Escaped'' 
is  the  predicate.  "Arnold ''  is  limited  by  "  the  base  trai- 
tor,'' a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  first  class  —  of 
which  "  traitor"  is  the  basis,  limited  by  "  the"  and  "base," 
simple  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class.  "  Traitor"  is 
a  common  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  nominative  case,  and  is  used  to  identify 
"Arnold,"  according  to  Rule  VI. 

Rule  VII. — Caution  and  Exercises. 

Caution. — Never  omit  iJie  sign  of  possession  in  writing  the 
possessive  of  a  noun,  nor  employ  it  in  writing  tliat  of  a  pro- 
noun.    Write  man*s,  not  mans;  Us,  not  ii*s. 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  each  of  the 
following :  — 

(1.)  Simple  eUment.)  Mary's  mother  came.  Wellington's 
renown  increased.  Napoleon's  army  marched.  William's 
invention  failed. 

Note. — Let  the  Teacher  propose  examples  in  which  some 
of  the  elements  are  wanting. 

(2J  (Elements  complex.)  The  old  man's  daughter  awoke. 
The  merry  huntsman's  horn  aroused.  The  bright  sun's  rays 
illumine, 

(3.)  (Elements  compound.)  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  sepa- 
rates. Webster's,  Worcester's,  and  Richardson's  Dictionary, 
were  consulted.     (See  Remark  under  the  Rule.) 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding 
examples. 

What  Caution  under  Rule  VII.  ? 


LESSON    FIFTY-NINTH.  157 

Model.  —  "  Wellington's  renown  increased "  is  a  simple 
declarative  sentence.  Why?  "Renown"  is  the  simple, 
and  "Wellington's  renown''  the  complex  subject;  "in- 
creased" is  the  predicate.  "Renown,"  the  subject,  is 
limited  by  "Wellington's,"  a  simple  adjective  element  of 
the  first  class.  Why  ?  It  shows  whose  renown  is  meant. 
"Wellington's"  is  a  proper  noun,  third  person,  singular 
number,  possessive  case ;  it  is  used  to  limit  "renown  "  by 
denoting  possession,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

3.  Transform  the  foregoing  sentences  — 

(1.)  By  changing,  as  in  the  preceding  Lessons. 

(2.)  By  changing  the  possessive  to  an  element  of  the  second 
class  (consisting  of  the  preposition  "  of"  and  its  object)  placed 
after  the  noun.  Thus,  '•^ Mary^s  mother,'^  "the  mother  of 
MaryJ^ 

4.  Correct  by  the  Caution  the  following  exam- 
ples : — 

They  studied  Websters  Spelling  Book.  This  shawl  is  her's. 
That  is  Thomas  kite.  The  nations  hopes  are  blasted.  Their's 
let  the  profit  be. 

5.  General  Exeecise. — Analyze  the  following 
sentences,  and  parse  any  words  which  come  under  the 
first  seven  Rules  : — 

He  was  a  burning  and  a  shining  light ! 

Grim  darkness  furls  his  leaden  shroud. 

Art  is  long,  and  time  is  fleeting.     "  0  "  is  a  vowel. 

Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight. 

But  Hope,  the  charmer,  lingered  still  behind. 

Hushed  were  his  Gertrude^s  lips. 

Art  thou  that  traitor  angel? 

Angelica  Kauffman  was  a  distinguished  artist. 

Their  only  labor  was  to  kill  the  time. 

That  life  is  long,  which  answer's  life's  great  end. 

14 


158  GREENERS    INTRODUCTION. 

Your  friend  Harry  Vernon  has  become  a  distinguished  lawyer. 

Our  harps  we  left  by  Babel's  stream. 

Charles  I.  was  beheaded. 

The  child  was  called  Maud. 

Hail,  Sabbath !  thee  I  hail  —  the  poor  man's  day. 

0  lives  there,  Heaven,  beneath  thy  vast  expanse, 
One  hopeless,  dark  idolater  of  chance  ? 

Boon  nature  scattered  free  and  wild. 
Each  plant  or  flower,  the  mountain's  child. 

But  when  the  sun  in  all  his  state, 

Illumed  the  eastern  skies, 
He  passed  through  Glory's  morning  gate, 

^nd  walked  in  Paradise. 


LESSON   LX. 

THE    OBJECTIVE    ELEMENT. 

The  objective  element  is  put  in  construction  with  a 
transitive  verb  by  the  following  rule: — 

Rule  VIII. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object 
of  a  transitive  verb  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the 
objective  case  ;  as,  "  He  found  the  object  which  he 
desired.** 

Rem.  1. —  The  indirect  object  which  shows  that  to^  ot  for 
which  any  thing  is,  or  is  done,  properly  speaking,  follows  a 
preposition  understood;  as,  "Give  me  a  book"  =  "Give  to 
me  a  book."  The  preposition  should  be  used  when  the  direct 
object  is  placed  first. 

With  what  is  the  objective  element  put  in  construction? 
Give  Rule  VIII.     What  remark  on  the  indirect  object? 


'l  LESSON    SIXTIETH.  159 


Mem.  2.  —  The  following  verbs,  mdkey  appoint,  elect,  create, 
constitute,  render,  name,  style,  call,  esteem,  think,  consider,  re- 
gard, reckon,  and  some  others,  take  a  double  object  —  the  first 
direct,  or  principal  —  the  second,  its  attribute,  and  hence  called 
the  attributive  object ;  as,  "  They  called  him  John  J* 

Rem.  3. — The  following  verbs,  buy,  sell,  play,  sing,  and  many 
others,  take  two  objects,  one  direct,  and  the  other  indirect;  as, 
"  Buy  me  a  knife.'' 

Caution  and  Exercises. 

Caution. — Never  use  the  nominative  as  the  object  of  a  transi- 
tive verb.  Say,  *'Whom  did  he  visit?''  —  not  '^Who  did  he 
visit?" 

1.  Construct  five  other  examples  like  the  follow- 
ing :— 

(1.)  {Simple  objective.)  Columbus  discovered  America.  Pi- 
zarro  conquered  Peru.    Ada  uses  perfume.     James  killed  flies. 

(2.)  {Complex  objective.)  He  lived  a  desolate  life.  They 
found  agreeable  companions.  She  recognized  Henry's  voice. 
Have  you  read  the  "Dairyman's  Daughter?"  They  burned 
Huss  the  reformer.     Herod  beheaded  John  the  Baptist. 

(3.)  {Compound  objective.)  He  declined  the  honor  and  the 
emolument.  The  grocer  kept  dates  and  figs.  The  legislature 
passed  laws  and  resolves. 

(4.)  {Double  object.)  They  made  him  king.  He  appointed 
John  monitor.     They  called  him  George.     Give  me  flowers. 

Model.  —  "They  made  him  king"  is  a  simple  declarativ* 
sentence.  "  They'^  is  the  subject,  "  made"  is  the  simple 
and  "  made  him  king"  the  complex  predicate.  "  Made" 
is  modified  by  "him  king,"  a  double  object,  both  parts 
being  necessary  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb; 

What  verbs  take  a  double  object?  What  is  remarked  of 
the  verbs  buy,  sell,  &c.  ?     Give  the  caution  under  Rule  VIII. 


160  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

**  kim^'  is  the  principal,  and  "  king^'  the  attributive  object. 
(See  Rule  VIII.,  Rem.  2.)  Parse  each  separately,  apply- 
ing Rule  VIII.,  and  Rem.  2. 

2.  Correct  by  the  Caution  the  following  exam- 
ples :  — 

Who  did  you  see  yesterday?  Who  did  he  marry?  They 
that  help  us,  we  should  reward.  Who  should  I  find  but  my 
cousin?     I  do  not  know  who  to  send. 

3.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  the  foregoing 
sentences. 

Model. — "  Columbus  discovered  America."  It  is  a  simple 
declarative  sentence.  Why?  **  Columbus"  is  the  subject. 
Why?  "Discovered"  is  the  simple,  and  "discovered 
America"  is  the  complex  predicate.  "Discovered"  is 
limited  by  "America,"  a  simple  objective  element  of  the 
first  class,  showing  what  Columbus  discovered.  "America" 
is  a  proper  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  objective  case,  and  is  used  as  the  object  of  "dis- 
covered."    Rule  VIII. 

4.  Transform  any  of  the  foregoing  sentences  by 
changing  the  object  into  the  subject,  and  the  verb 
from  the  active  to  the  passive  voice.  Thus,  "America 
was  discovered  by  Columbus.'* 

5.  Construct  and  analyze  five  sentences  having 
subjects  limited  by  complex  adjective  elements,  and 
predicates  limited  by  complex  objective  elements. 


LESSON    SIXTY- FIRST.  161 

LESSON   LXI. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    ADVERBIAL    ELEMENT. 

The  adverbial  element  is  put  in  construction  with 
&  verb,  a  participle,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  by 
the  following  rule  : — 

Rule  IX. — Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  par- 
ticiples, adjectives,  and  other  adverbs ;  as,  "  Light- 
ing moves  swiftly,'' 

Ca^^tions  and  Exercises. 

Caution  I.  —  Never  use  two  negatives  to  express  a  negation. 
Say  "  I  want  no  aid" — not  "  I  donH  want  no  aid." 

Caution  II. — Never  use  *'  how^^  before  "  that"  nor  instead  of 
it.  Say,  "He  said  that  he  would  come"  —  not,  ^^ how  he 
would  come." 

1.  Construct  six  other  sentences  like  the  follow- 
ing:— 

(1.)  (Simple  adv.  element.)  She  played  finely.  The  cam- 
paign opened  vigorously.  The  boat  arrived  yesterday.  They 
ride  frequently. 

(2.)  {Complex  adv.  element.)  She  hears  very  imperfectly. 
They  go  too  often.  She  sews  very  neatly.  He  managed  most 
adroitly. 

(3.)  (Adverbial  element  compound.)  She  writes  rapidly  and 
neatly.  The  rain  falls  softly  and  silently  He  came  early  and 
late. 

(4.)  (Complex  adjective  and  complex  objective  wanting.)  — — 
horn  aroused =-  early.     son  inherited legally. 

With  what  is  the  adverbial  element  put  in  construction?    ' 
Give  Rule  IX.     Caution  I.     Caution  II.  • 

■  ■  '1 


162  G&EENE*S    INTRODUCTION. 


2.     Analyze  and  parse  the  foregoing. 

Model. — **  Lawrence  writes  carefully/'  is  a  simple  declara- 
tive sentence.  "Lawrence"  is  the  subject;  "writes"  is 
the  grammatical,  and  "writes  carefully"  the  logical  predi- 
cate. "Writes"  is  modified  by  "carefully,"  a  simple  j 
adverbial  element  of  the  first  class  ;  advei^hial,  because  it  is  | 
added  tc  a  verb,  and  shows  how  he  writes  ;  simpUy  because 
it  receives  no  modification  or  addition  ;  first  class,  because 
it  is  a  single  wordy  expressing  both  the  idea  of  care  and  its 
relation  to  "writes."  "  Carefully"  is  an  adverb  of  man- 
ner, compared,  carefully^  more  carefully^  most  carefully. 
It  limits  "  writes."     Rule  IX. 

8.     Correct  by  Caution  I.  the  following  examples : 

I  cannot  write  no  more.  Candace  says  how  that  she  won't 
go  no  how.  Paul  will  never  be  no  better.  Raymond  hasn't 
been  to  no  shop. 

4.     Correct  the  following  by  Caution  II. : 
Ella  said  how  she  believed  it.    Just  remember  how  that  a 
penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned.     Isaac  said  how  that  he  would 


INTERJECTION   AND   CASE   INDEPENDENT. 

Rule  X. — The  nominative  case  independent  and 
the  interjection  have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

1.    Construct  and  parse  other  examples  like  these  : 

(1.)  (By  direct  address.)  Plato,  thou  reasonest  well.  Chil- 
dren, obey  your  parents. 

(2.)  {By  exclamation.)  0  thought  ineffable  I  0  vision  blest! 
0  my  misfortune !  when  shall  I  be  released  I 


Give  Rule  X. 


LESSON    SIXTY-FIllST.  163 


(3.)  (By pleonasm.)  The  pilgrim  fathers,  where  are  they? 
Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him. 

(4.)  ( Case  absolute.)  (See  Rem.  p.  100.)  He  having  given  us 
the  direction,  we  departed.  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is 
lost. 

Model. — "  Plato,  thou  reasonest  well,"  is  a  simple  sentence. 
Why?  "  Thou  ''  is  the  simple  subject ;"  "  reasonest ''  is 
the  simple,  and  '*  reasonest  well ''  is  the  complex  predicate. 
**  Plato  "  is  a  proper  noun,  second  person,  singular  num- 
ber, masculine  gender,  and  nominative  case  independent, 
by  direct  address;  it  forms  no  part  of  the  proposition. 
Kule  X. 

2.     Construct  five   examples  containing  interjec- 
tions, and  parse   them  by   the   rule. 

Model. — "Alas  !  I  then  have  chid  away  my  friend."  "Alas" 
is  an  interjection  ;  it  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  sentence.     Rule  X. 

General  Parsing  Exercises. 

Imperial  Rome  governed  the  bodies  of  men,  but  not  their 
souls. 

The  sentinel  inquired,  "  Who  comes  there  ?" 

Speak  softly,  for  a  breath  might  wake  her. 

Fair  daftbdils !  we  weep  to  see  you  haste  away  so  soon. 

The  pilgrim  fathers,  where  are  they  I 

Sweet  dayl  so  calm,  so  still,  so  bright, 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky. 

Let  us  repeat  that  prayer  in  the  hour  when  the  wicked  assail 
us.    Let  us  repeat  it  now,  and  say,  "  0  Father,  forgive  them  1" 
Thou,  too,  sail  on,  0  ship  of  State  I 
Sail  on,  0  Union,  strong  and  great  I 
Fear  not  each  sudden  sound  and  shock, 
'  Tis  of  the  wave,  and  not  the  rock. 
Sail  on,  nor  fear  to  breast  the  sea  I 
Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  are  all  with  thee. 


164  Greene's  introduction. 


LESSON    LXII. 

CONSTRUCTION   AND    USE    OF    CONNECTIVES.  —  COORDI- 
NATE   CONNECTIVES. 

(partial    compound    SENTENCES.) 

Coordinate  connectives  are  used  when  the  parts  to 
be  united  are  similar.  The  sentence  then  has  one  or 
more  of  its  parts  compound,  and  is  called  a  partial 
compound  sentence. 

■  Rule  XI.  —  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to 
connect  similar  elements.  *' Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  were  Jewish  patriarchs.*' 

Exercises. 

1.  Construct  three  other  examples  like  each  of 
these  :— 

(1.)  (Subjects  coordinate.)  Exercise  and  temperance 
strengthen  the  constitution.  Romulus  and  Remus  were  twin 
brothers. 

(2.)  (Predicates  coordinate.)  Education  expands  and  elevates 
the  mind.  Religion  refines  and  purifies  the  aflections.  No 
fascinated  throng  weep,  and  melt,  and  tremble  at  his  eloquence. 

(3.)  [Adj.  element  coordinate.)  Wise  and  good  men  are 
frequently  unsuccessful.  A  bright  and  glorious  prospect  is 
opened  by  Christianity.  A  plain  and  simple  stylo  recommends 
and  heightens  the  sublime. 

(4.)  (  Ohj.  element  coordinate.)  Pope  wrote  the  Messiah,  and 
the  Essay  on  Criticism.  Behold  my  mother  and  my  brethren. 
The  creation  demonstrates  God's  power  and  wisdom. 

(5.)  (Adverbial  element  coordinate.)  The  preacher's  voice 
grew  fainter  and  fainter.     Live  quietly  and  conten-tedly. 

When  are  coordinate  connectives  used  ?     Give  Rule  XI. 


U 


1 

LESSON    SIXTY-SECOND.  165! 

. I 

2.  Classify,    analyze,    and    parse    the   foregoing 

examples. 

Model.  —  **  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  Jewish  pa-  I 
triarchs/'  It  is  a  partial  compound  sentence,  because  one  j 
of  its  parts,  the  subject,  is  compound.  It  is  declarative. 
Why?  "Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,"  is  the  compound 
subject,  consisting  of  three  component  parts.  Name  them. 
"Were  Jewish  patriarchs"  is  the  complex,  and  "  were 
patriarchs"  the  simple  predicate;  "and"  is  a  coordinate 
conjunction,  and  is  used  to  connect  the  similar  elements 
'*  Isaac"  and  "Jacob,"  according  to  Rule  XI. 

3.  Construct  and  analyze  other  examples  like  the 
above,  with  the  component  parts  complex. 

4.  Transform  the  foregoing  examples  by  making 
them  into  complete  compound  sentences.     Thus : — 

"Abraham  was  a  Jewish  patriarch,  Isaac  was  a  Jewish  pa- 
triarch, and  Jacob  was  a  Jewish  patriarch."  Then  suppress 
the  common  part  and  restore  the  sentence  to  its  present  form. 

In  constructing  a  verb  or  a  pronoun  which  relates 
to  two  or  more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  con- 
junction, observe  the  following  rule  : — 

Rule  XII.— (1.)  If  the  verb  or  pronoun  agrees  with  them 
conjointly^  it  must  be  in  the  plural  number. 

(2.)  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it  must  be 
of  the  same  number  as  that  which  stands  next  to  it. 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must  take 
the  number  of  that  one. 

Exercises. 

Construct  other  examples  like  these : — 
(1.)    (ConjohUly.)    Charles  and  his  sister  were  absent,  but 

Give  Rule  XII. 


166  Greene's  introduction. 

they  were  sent  for.     One  day  the  poor  "woman  and  her  idiot 
b'^y  were  missed  from  the  market-place. 

(2.)  [Separately.)  Neither  his  vote,  his  influence,  nor  his 
purse  was  ever  withheld  from  the  cause  in  which  he  had 
engaged.     Neither  the  captain,  nor  the  sailors  were  saved. 

(3.)  [One,  and  not  the  otJier.)  Charles,  and  not  his  sister, 
1^8  absent.     The  parents,  and  not  the  child,  are  responsible. 


LESSON   LXIII. 

ELEMENTS    OF   THE    SECOND   CLASS  —  PHRASES. 

An  element  of  the  second  class  is  always  a  phrase^ 
and  is  usually  an  infinitive,  or  a  preposition  and  its 
object. 

CONSTRUCTION   AND   USE   OF  THE   PREPOSITION. 

Rule  XIII. — A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the 
relation  of  its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  latter 
depends  ;  as,  "  George  went  into  the  garden.** 

Rule  XIV. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object 
of  a  preposition,  must  be  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
"  The  ruins  of  the  Parthenon  stand  t^pon  the  Acropolis 
in  the  city  of  Athens,'* 

Rem.  1. — The  preposition  is  generally  to  be  supplied  before 
nouns  denoting  timet  measure^  distance,  value,  —  or  after  the 
adjectives  like,  near,  nigh,  worth;  as,  "He  walked  [through] 
two  miles  ;"  "  He  is  like  [to]  his  ftUher." 

Give  Rule  Xlll.  Rule  XIV.  In  what  cases  is  the  preposi- 
tion generally  omitted  ? 


LESSON    SIXTY-THIRD.  167 

1.  Construct  other  examples  like  each  of  the 
following: — 

(1.)  [The  subject — a  phrase »)  Simple. — To  love  exalts.  Tc 
exercise  strengthens.  To  forgive  ennobles.  To  walk  invi- 
gorates. 

Complex  and  compound. — To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.  To 
know  oneself  is  the  highest  wisdom.  To  soothe  thy  sickness, 
and  to  watch  thy  health,  shall  be  my  pleasure.  To  toil  for, 
and  yet  to  lose  the  reward  of  virtue,  is  the  hard  lot  of  man. 

(2.)  [Predicate  —  a  phrase,)  Simple.  —  Coffee  is  fragrant. 
Medicine  is  nauseous.  He  is  a  scholar.  To  err  is  human. 
Iler  hope  is  to  return.  The  lady  is  in  grief.  To  obey  is  to 
enjoy. 

Complex  and  compound. — The  present  life  is  not  wholly  pro- 
saic, precise,  tame,  and  finite.  To  pray  is  to  render  thanks  to 
God,  to  adore  him,  and  to  supplicate  his  mercy. 

(3.)  [Adjective  element — a  phrase,)  Simple. — The  temple  of 
Solomon  was  destroyed.  The  gates  of  the  convent  were  closed. 
The  bard  of  Avon  sleeps. 

Complex  and  compound. — Men  of  tried  character  were  found. 
An  observation  of  the  sun  in  the  meridian  was  taken.  The 
reign  of  William  and  Mary  commenced  with  the  glorious  revo- 
lution of  1688.  The  tops  of  Olympus  and  Parnassus  reached 
above  the  clouds. 

(4.)  [Objective  element— a  phrase.)  Simple. — They  hoped  to 
succeed.  She  desired  to  write.  He  strives  to  excel.  Ada  is 
trying  to  learn. 

Complex  and  compound. — The  book  deserves  to  be  read  with 
great  care.  I  intended  to  write  a  full  account  of  the  affair.  He 
chooses  to  die  and  to  redeem  his  friend.  She  is  led  to  efigage 
in  calmer  pursuits,  and  to  seek  for  gentler  employment. 

(5.)   [Adverbial  element — a  phrase,)    Simple. — 

(a.)  Place. — She  came  to  the  city.  Anna  sat  in  the  carriage. 
Rain  falls  from  the  clouds.    The  lion  roars  in  the  forest. 


168  Greene's  introduction. 

(6.)  Time. — The  boat  sailed  in  the  morning.  The  conven- 
tion will  meet  on  Tuesday.  Come  at  noon.  In  the  morning, 
it  flourisheth. 

[c.)  Cause.  —  Ella  ran  from  fear.  The  inhabitants  are 
perishing  from  famine.   The  party  were  travelling  for  pleasure. 

[d.)  Manner. — The  messenger  came  in  haste.  The  orator 
spoke  with  fluency.  The  Greeks  succeeded  by  stratagem. 
Emily  was  delighted  with  her  present. 

Complex  and  compound  miscellaneous.  With  trembling 
limbs  and  faltering  steps,  he  departed  from  his  mansion  of  sor- 
row. I  have  spent  my  days  in  darkness  and  error.  The  com- 
missioners came  to  examine  the  ground,  and  to  hear  the  state- 
ments of  the  opposing  parties.  On  Monday  or  Tuesday,  the 
examination  will  commence.  Across  the  lake,  through  bush 
and  brake,  resounds  the  bugle  horn. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  any  of  the  fore- 
going examples. 

Model. — "This  ancient  city  was  situated  at  the  head  of  the 
bay,"  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  Why?  "This 
ancient  city"  is  the  complex,  and  "  city"  the  simple  sub- 
ject. "  Was  situated  at  the  head  of  the  bay"  is  the  com- 
plex, and  **  was  situated"  the  simple  predicate.  "  City," 
the  subject,  is  limited  by  "this"  and  "ancient,"  two  sim- 
ple adjective  elements  of  the  first  class.  The  predicate, 
"  was  situated,"  is  limited  by  "  at  the  head  of  the  bay,"  a 
complex  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class,  of  which 
"  at  the  head"  is  the  basis  ;  "  at"  is  the  preposition,  and 
"  head  "  the  object ;  "  head  "  is  limited  by  "  the,"  a  simple 
adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  "of  the  bay," 
a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  second  class  ;  "  of  bay" 
is  the  basis,  "  of"  the  preposition,  and  "  bay"  the  object, ' 
and  is  limited  by  "the"  (described  as  above).  "At"  is  a 
preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  of  "head"  to  "was 
situated."  Rule  XIII.  "Head"  is  a  common  noun,  third 
person,  sing,  num.,  neut.  gen.,  obj.  case,  and  is  used  as  the 
object  of  the  preposition  "  at."     Rule  XIV. 


LESSON    SIXTY-THIRD.  169 

3,     Trdnsform  any  of  the  preceding  examples  — 

(1.)  By  changing  the  class  of  the  sentence  (interrogative, 
imperative,  exclamatory). 

(2.)  By  transposing  the  subject  of  No.  1  (1),  and  introducing 
the  sentence  by  "  it.''     Thus,  **  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun." 

(3.)  By  altering  any  of  the  second  class  elements  in  No.  1  (3), 
to  first  class.     Thus,  "  Solomon^s  temple  was  destroyed." 

(4.)  By  transposing  the  adverbial  element  in  No.  1  (5)  (a,  6,  c, 
d).   Thus,  "  To  ilie  city  she  came." 

General  Exercises.  —  Analyze  and  parse  the 
following  examples : — 

A  distinction  ought  to  be  made  between  fame  and  true 
honor. 

I  would  calmly  and  humbly  submit  myself  to  the  good  and 
blessed  will  of  God. 

Where  was  it  when  winds  and  clouds  were  its  only  visitors  ? 

Neither  moon  nor  stars  shine  upon  the  wanderer. 

Strong  proofs,  not  a  loud  noise,  produce  conviction. 

Not  the  boys,  but  the  farmer,  was  in  fault. 

From  shore  to  shore,  from  cliff  to  cliff,  'twas  free. 

The  mountains,  like  huge  giants,  stand. 

The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  morn. 
The  swallow,  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed. 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

COMPLEX    SENTENCES.  —  ELEMENTS   THIRD   CLASS. 

An  element  of  the  third  class  is  always  a  clause 
consisting  of  a  connective  and  a  proposition. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  third  class  ? 


170  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

LESSON  LXIV 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   SUBORDINATE   CONNECTIVES. 

Rule  XV.  Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to 
join  dissimilar  elements  ;  as,  "  He  that  hath  pity  on 
the  poor,  lendeth  to  the  Lord." 

Rem.  1. — Elements  are  dissimilar  when  they  differ  in  their 
naiurcy  rank^  ov  form.     See  Lessons  LIIL,  LIV.,  LV. 

Rem.  2. — The  subordinate  connective  unites  the  clause  which 
it  introduces,  to  the  word  which  the  clause  limits ;  as,  "  I  per- 
ceive that  you  need  assistance." 

Exercises. 

1.  Construct  three  other  examples  like  each  of  the 
following :  * — 

(I.)  (Subject — a  clause.)  That  he  deceived,  became  certain. 
Who  wrote  Junius's  letters  is  uncertain.  That  their  poetry 
was  almost  uniformly  mournful,  and  that  their  views  of  nature 
were  dark  and  dreary,  will  be  allowed  by  all  who  admit  the 
authenticity  of  Ossian.  That  we  are,  as  yet,  only  in  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  great  science  of  education,  cannot  be  questioned. 

(2.)  (Attribute — a  clause.)  My  desire  is,  that  you  may  suc- 
ceed. His  pretence  was,  that  the  storm  of  the  preceding  even- 
ing prevented  his  attendance.  Your  belief  is,  that  the  enemy 
has  crossed  the  country.  My  proposition  is,  that  your  son 
shall  return  to  college,  that  you  shall  go  abroad,  and  that  the 


*  Simple,  complex,  and  compound  elements  are  here  mingled, 
to  afford  an  exercise  for  the  learner  in  distinguishing  and  imi- 
tating them. 

Give  Rule  XV.  When  are  elements  dissimilar  ?  What  does 
the  subordinate  connective  unite  ? 


rr 


LESSON    SIXTY-FOURTH.  171 


house  shall  be  closed  during  your  absence.  His  answer  was, 
that  he  approved  the  plan  of  the  measure,  and  that  he  was 
confident  of  its  success. 

(3.)  {Adjective  element  —  a  clause.)  Evils  which  cannot  be 
cured,  must  be  endured.  He  who  reads  in  a  proper  spirit,  can 
scarcely  read  too  much.  Slaves  and  savages  who  receive  no 
education,  are  proverbially  indolent.  A  cottage  which  is 
shaded  with  trees,  and  which  is  situated  far  from  the  noise 
and  bustle  of  the  city,  is  a  Tery  pleasant  retreat.  That  faith 
which  is  one,  which  renews  and  justifies  all  who  possess  it, 
which  confessions  and  formularies  can  never  adequately 
express,-  is  the  property  of  all  alike. 

(4.)  (Objective  element — a  clause.)  Many  suppose  that  the 
planets  are  inhabited.  The  insane  imagine  that  they  alone  are 
sane.  We  all  know  how  a  man  of  mighty  genius  can  impart 
himself  to  other  minds.  Every  one  should  feel  that  his  exist- 
ence stretches  beyond  the  limits  of  this  mortal  life.  He  heard 
that  his  wife  had  fallen  a  lingering  sacrifice  to  penury  and 
sorrow ;  that  his  children  had  gone  to  seek  their  fortunes  in 
distant  or  unknown  climes ;  and  that  the  grave  contained  his 
nearest  and  most  valuable  friends. 

(5.)  (Adverbial  element  —  a  clause.)"^  They  were  sitting 
where  the  branches  of  a  spreading  elm  protected  them  from  the 
burning  rays  of  the  noonday  sun.  As  far  as  the  east  is  from 
the  west,  so  far  has  he  removed  our  transgressions  from  us. 
While  I  was  musing,  the  fire  burned.  When  two  lines  cross 
each  other,  the  opposite  angles  are  equal.  Ye  shall  not  see 
Qie,  because  I  go  unto  my  father.  Though  he  was  rich,  yet 
for  our  sakes  he  became  poor.  Speak  as  you  think.  Happi- 
ness is  more  equally  divided  than  some  suppose.  While  the 
bridegroom  tarried,  they  all  slumbered  and  slept.  As  we 
grow  older,  life  becomes  dim  in  the  distance.  Wherever  we 
are,  we  are  not  forgotten  by  a  kind  Providence.  When  a  few 
more  friends  have  left  us,  a  few  more  hopes  deceived,  and  a 

*  Let  the  learner  distinguish  those  which  denote  place^  time* 
oaw^e,  and  manner. 


I' 


172  GREENERS    INTRODUCTION. 

few  more  changes  mocked  us,  we  shall  be  brought  to  the 
grave,  and  remain  in  the  tomb.  He  takes  us  from  earth,  that 
he  may  lead  us  to  heaven,  that  he  may  refine  our  nature  from 
all  its  principles  of  corruption,  that  he  may  share  with  us  his 
own  immortality,  that  he  may  admit  us  to  his  everlasting  I 
habitation,  and  that  he  may  crown  us  with  his  eternity.  ! 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  any  of  the  fore- 
going examples. 

Model.  —  "  When  the  wicked  are  multiplied,  transgression 
increaseth,"  is  a  complex,  declarative  sentence ;  complex^ 
because  it  contains  dissimilar  clauses — "transgression  in- 
creaseth''  being  the  principal,  and  "when  the  wicked  are 
multiplied,"  the  subordinate  clause.  "  Transgression,"  the 
subject  of  the  principal  clause,  is  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tCBce  ;"  "  increaseth  "  is  the  simple,  and  '*  increaseth  when 
the  wicked  are  multiplied"  is  the  complex  predicate. 
"  Increaseth  "  is  limited  by  **  whtn  the  wicked  are  multi- 
plied," a  complex  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  of 
which  **  when  wicked  (more  exactly  '  persons'  understood) 
are  multiplied"  is  the  basis.  "Persons"  understood  is 
limited  by  "the"  and  "wicked;"  or  "wicked"  used 
as  a  noun  is  limited  by  "  the ;"  the  predicate  is  not  limited. 
"When"  is  a  subordinate  connective  (conjunctive  adverb 
of  time)  and  joins  the  adverbial  clause,  which  it  intro- 
duces to  "increaseth,"  the  predicate  of  the  principal  clause. 
Rule  XY.  It  limits  "  are  multiplied,"  and  "  increaseth," 
according  to  Rule  IX. 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  foregoing  examples  — 
(1.)  By  altering  the  subordinate  clause  to  a  wm^d  or  pTirase, 
(2.)  By  transposing  it. 

(3.)  By  changing  the  entire  sentence  to  a  declarative,  inter- 
rogative, &c. 

(4.)  By  making   the   subordinate   into  a  principal   clause. 


LESSON    SIXTY-FIFTH.  173 

Thus.  "They  were  sitting,  and  the  branches  of  a  spreading 
elm  protected  them  from  the  burning  rays  of  the  noonday  sun." 
(5.)  Change  examples  in  No.  1  (1),  by  introducing  the  sen- 
tence with  "it."    Thus,  "It  became  certain  that  he  deceived." 

4.  Change  any  of  the  following  adjective,  objec- 
tive, or  adverbial  elements  into  clauses,  thus  convert- 
ing simple  into  complex  sentences  : — 

Trees  growing  at  tlie  foot  of  the  mountain,  are  taller  than 
those  on  the  summit.  K  ^persevering  man  will  overcome  obsta- 
cles. A  discontented  man  cannot  be  happy.  I  do  not  remem- 
ber the  time  of  the  lecture.  The  ancients  believed  the  earth  to 
he  a  vast  plain.  On  our  arrival,  all  was  bustle  and  confusion. 
Thus,  "A  man  who  perseveres,  will  prosper." 

COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 

A  compound  sentence  is  formed  by  uniting  two  or 
more  principal  propositions  by  either  of  the  coordinate 
conjunctions. 


i 


LESSON  LXV. 

EXERCISES. 

1.     Construct  other  examples  like  the  following : 

(1.)  (Copulative  clauses.)  We  shall  feel  the  same  revolution 
of  the  seasons,  and  the  same  sun  and  moon  will  guide  the 
course  of  our  year.  Modesty  is  one  of  the  chief  ornaments  of 
youth  ;  and  it  has  ever  been  esteemed  a  presage  of  rising 
merit.  You  know  I  love  country  life,  and  here  we  have  it  in 
perfection. 

How  is  a  compound  sentence  formed  ? 


174  Greene's  introduction. 

(2.)  {Adversative  clauses.)  The  man  was  communicative 
enough,  but  nothing  was  distinct  in  his  mind.  A  clownish  air  is 
but  a  small  defect ;  yet  it  is  enough  to  make  a  man  disagree- 
able. Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dryden  ;  but  Dryden 
certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope.  I  believe  there  are 
few  heads  capable  of  making  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  calculations, 
but  the  result  of  them  is  not  difficult  to  be  understood  by  a 
moderate  capacity. 

(3.)  (Alternative  clauses.)  We  mast  fight,  or  our  liberties 
will  be  lost.  Never  utter  any  profane  speeches,  nor  make  a 
jest  of  any  scriptural  expressions.  Either  he  will  hate  the 
one,  and  love  the  other,  or  else  he  will  hold  to  the  one,  and 
despise  the  other.  Neither  hath  this  man  sinned,  nor  his 
parents. 

2.  Classify,  analyze,  and  parse  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Model. — "You  know  I  love  country  life,  and  here  we  have 
it  in  perfection.*'  It  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence 
compoundy  because  it  contains  similar  clauses;  declarative, 
because  it  declares  something.  "  You  know  I  love  coun- 
try life,"  is  the  first,  and  "  here  we  have  it  in  perfection,' 
is  the  second  principal  proposition.  They  are  coordinate 
with  each  other,  and  are  connected  by  **  and,"  which  is  a 
copulative  coordinate  conjunction.  Rule  XI.  [Analyze 
each  proposition  separately,  as  a  simple  sentence.] 

3.  Transform  any  of  the  preceding  examples 
(where  it  can  be  done)  by  changing  one  of  the  clauses 
(1)  to  a  subordinate  clause ;  (2)  to  a  participial  con- 
struction. 

Model. — Play  with  a  fool  at  home,  and  he  will  play  with 
you  abroad  =  If  you  play  with  a  fool  at  home,  he  will  play 
with  you  abroad  =  By  playing  with  a  fool  at  home,  he 
will  play  with  you  abroad. 


LESSON    SIXTY-SIXTH.  175 

LESSON  LXVI. 

INFINITIVE   AND    PARTICIPLE. 

In  changing  a  complex  to  a  simple  sentence,  we 
must  change  the  verb  of  the  subordinate  clause  to  an 
infinitive  or  a  participle.  They  are  then  disposed  of 
by  the  following  rules  : — 

EuLE  XVI.  —  The  infinitive  has  the  construction 
of  the  noun,  with  the  signification  and  limitations  of 
the  verb,  and,  when  dependent,  is  governed  by  the 
word  which  it  limits  ;  as,  "  To  err  is  human  ;'*  "  They 
desire  to  travel  in  a  foreign  country,'' 

Rem.  1.  —  The  infinitive  may  be  associated  with  the  subject 
which  the  verb  had  before  the  subordinate  chiuse  was  changed  ; 
as,  "  We  wish  that  you  would  stay  "  =  We  wish  you  to  stay  ; 
or  that  subject  may  be  dropped,  and  the  infinitive  may  appear 
without  it ;  as.  We  wish  that  we  might  stay  =  We  wish  to  stay. 

Rem.  2.  —  When  the  infinitive  follows  hid,  dare,  lei,  7ieed, 
make,  see,  hear,  andjeel,  in  the  active  voice,  the  **^o''  is  omit- 
ted ;  as,  *'  I  saw  him  do  it." 

Rule  XVII. — Participles  have  the  construction  of 
adjectives  and  nouns,  and  are  limited  like  verbs;  as, 
"  He  stooping  down,  and  looking  in,  saw  the  linen 
clothes  lying;  yet  went  he  not  in."  ^^A  habit  of 
sincerity  in  acknowledging  faults  is  a  guard  against 
committing  them." 


When  is  the  subordinate  clause  changed  to  the  infinitive  or 
participle  ?  Give  Rule  XVI.  Rule  XVII.  With  what  may 
the  infinitive  be  associated  ? 


176  GREENE'S    INTROPUCTION. 


Rem.  L — The  participle,  like  the  infinitive,  may  be  associated 
with  the  subject  which  the  verb  had  before  the  subordinate 
clause  was  changed.  When  this  subject  remains  in  the  nomi- 
native case,  it  is  parsed  by  the  following  rule  •  — 

A  noun  or  pronoun  is  p^it  in  the  nominative  absolute^  with  a 
participle,  when  its  case  depends  upon  no  other  word;  as, 
"  Shame  being  losty  all  virtue  is  lost." 

Rem.  2. — The  participle,  when  used  as  an  adjective,  assu7)ies 
the  action  which  the  verb  asserts.  When  used  as  a  7ionny  it  is 
equivalent  to  the  infinitive,  and  may  be  (1)  wholly  a  noun ;  as, 
"  It  is  pleasant  to  walk  at  the  rising  of  the  sun  ;"  or  partially 
so  ;  as,  "  We  should  avoid  giving  pain  to  others."  In  the  last 
example,  the  participle  retains  some  of  its  verbal  character, 
thereby  governing  "  pain." 

Exercises. 

1.  Construct  three  other  examples  like  each  of 
the  following : — 

(1.)  [Inf.  and  part — suty/ect.)  Lying  is  the  vice  of  slaves. 
To  steal  is  base.  To  forgive  is  divine.  To  mourn  without 
measure,  is  folly  ;  not  to  mourn  at  all,  insensibility.  Cheating, 
stealing,  swearing,  and  traducing,  are  all  criminal.  To  deprive 
me  of  liberty,  to  torture  me,  or  to  imprison  me,  is  not  your 
right. 

(2.)  (Inf.  and  jjart. — predicate.)  The  boat  is  approaching. 
Night  is  coming.  The  ceremony  was  performed.  The  boy  is 
to  be  educated.  The  boat  is  to  sail  on  Tuesday.  The  ship  was 
lying  at  anchor.  The  great  object  of  education  is,  not  to  store 
the  mind  with  knowledge,  but  to  give  activity  and  vigor  to  its 
power. 

(3.)  (Tiif-  and  pari. — adj.  element.)  Ages  yet  to  come  will 
develop  greater  improvements  in  the  arts  than  are  now  aston- 


Give  Remark  I.  Give  the  rule  for  the  nominative  absolute. 
What  is  said  of  the  participle  used  as  an  adjective  ?  When 
used  as  a  noun  ? 


LESSON    SIXTY-SIXTH.  177 

ishing  mankind.  A  desire  to  aid  his  friend  led  him  to  encoun- 
ter every  danger,  and  surmount  every  diflBiculty.  The  setting 
Bun  is  a  beautiful  object.  Being  convinced  of  his  guilt,  we 
resolved  to  punish  him. 

(4.)  [Inf.  and  part. — obj.  element,)  The  problem  has  to  bo 
wrought  out.  It  teaches  us  to  be  thankful  for  all  favors  re- 
ceived, to  love  each  other,  and  to  be  united.  The  decalogue 
forbids  worshipping  idols. 

(5.)  [Inf.  and  part. — adv.  element,)  They  ascended  the  Nile 
to  discover  its  source.  I  have  brought  this  flower  to  show  you 
the  peculiar  structure  of  its  petals.  The  legislature  appointed 
commissioners  to  make  a  geological  survey  of  the  state.  Hope 
"  springs  exulting  on  triumphant  wings." 

2.  Transform,  analyze,  and  parse  the  preceding 
examples.     Thus,  "  That  one  should  steal,  is  base.'' 

General  Exercise.  —  Analyze  and  parse  the 
following  examples : — 

While  there  is  life,  there  is  hope. 

Whatever  is,  is  right. 

She  hath  done  what  she  could. 

The  red-breast  loves  to  build  and  warble  there. 

Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil. 

The  storm  rising,  Julia  hastened  home. 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll, — 
Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain 
Then,  kneeling  down  to  Heaven's  eternal  King, 
The  saint,  the  husband,  and  the  father  prays ; 
Hope  "  springs  exulting  on  triumphant  wing," 
That  thus  they  all  shall  meet  in  future  days. 
There  is  a  glorious  city  in  the  sea ; 
The  tide  is  in  the  broad,  the  narrow  streets, 
Ebbing  and  flowing ; — and  the  salt  sea-weed 
Clings  to  the  marble  of  her  palaces. 
No  track  of  men — no  footsteps  to  and  fro, 
Lead  to  her  gates — the  path  lies  o^er  the  sea. 


178  QREENB*S    INTRODUCTION. 

Inspiring  thought  of  rapture  yet  to  be  1 
The  tears  of  love  were  hopeless  but  for  thee. 
If  in  that  frame,  no  deathless  spirit  dwell, 
If  that  faint  murmur  be  the  last  farewell, 
If  fate  unite  the  faithful  but  to  part, 
Why  is  their  memory  sacred  to  the  heart  ? 


PROSODY. 


LESSON  LXVII. 

VERSB,    FEET,    SCANNING. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

A  verse  is  a  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables,  constituting  a  line  of  poetry. 

Verse  is  of  two  kinds — rhyme  and  blank  verse. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound  of 
one  verse  to  that  of  another. 

Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

A  foot  is  two  or  more  syllables,  combined  according 
to  accent. 

The  principal  feet,  in  English,  are  the  iambus^  the 
trochee,  the  anapaest,  and  the  dactyl'. 

The  iambus  consists  of  a  short  and  a  long  syllable ; 
as,  invite,  devote,  benign. 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ?  What  is  a  verse  ?  How  many 
kinds?  What  constitutes  rhyme?  What  is  blank  verse? 
What  is  a  foot  ?  What  are  the  principal  feet  in  English  ?  Of 
what  does  the  iambus  consist? 


LESSON    SIXTY-SEVENTH.  179 

The  trochee  consists  of  a  long  and  a  short  syllable ; 
as,  grateful^  grievous. 

The  anapsest  consists  of  two  short  syllables,  and 
one  long  one  ;  as,  meomplete,  c^nd^scend. 

The  dactyl  consists  of  one  long  syllable  and  two 
short  ones  ;  as,  positive,  loneliness. 

Scanning  consists  in  dividing  a  verse  into  the  feet 
which  compose  it. 

Examples  and  Exercises. 

IAMBIC   VERSE. 

1.  Iambic  of  om  foot:  — 

Thgy  g5 
To  sow. 

2.  Iambic  of  ttoo  feet : — 

T5  me  |  thg  rSse 
No  longer  glows. 

3 .  Iambic  of  three  feet : — 

No  roy-  |  S,l  pomp  |  Sdoms 
This  King  of  righteousness. 

4.  Iambic  of  four  feet : — 

And  cold-  |  gr  still  |  th6  winds  |  did  bl5w 
And  darker  hours  of  night  came  on. 

5.  Iambic  of  five  feety  or  pentameter : — 

On  riftr  (  ed  rocks,  |  thg  drag-  |  5n'8  late  |  SbSdea 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  the  bulrush  nods. 


Of  what   does   the   trochee  consist?    The  anapaest?    The 
dactyle  ?    What  is  meant  by  scanning  ? 


180  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


6.  Iambic  of  six  feet,  or  hexameter: — 

Ills  heart  |  is  sad,  |  his  hope  |  is  gone,  |  his  light  |  is  pissed ; 
He  sits  and  mourns  in  silent  grief  the  lingering  day. 

7.  Iambic  of  seven  feet ,  or  heptameter: — 

Th6  lof- 1  ty  hill,  |  th6  hGm- 1  hVS  lawn,  |  with  count- 1 16s8  bead- ' 

ties  shine. 
The  silent  grove,  the  soiemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

Iambic  of  five  feet  is  called  heroic  verse ;  that  of 
six  feet  is  called  Alexandrine. 

Iambic  of  seven  feet  is  commonly  divided  into  two 
lines, — the  first  containing  four  feet,  the  second  three. 
This  is  called  common  metre;  as, 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn, 
With  countless  beauties  shine; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 
Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

In  long  metre,  each  line  has  four  iambic  feet ;  in 
short  metre,  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  contain 
three  iambic  feet,  the  third  four. 

Each  species  of  iambic  verse  may  have  one  addi- 
tional short  syllable.  Thus,  in  the  second  species,  — 
Upon  I  S,  moun-  |  taiu> 

TROCHAIC   VERSK. 

1.  Trochaic  of  one  foot : — 

Changing, 
Ranging. 

2.  TrocTuiic  of  tux)  feet : — 

Fancy  I  vis  wing, 
Joys  ensuing. 

What  is  iambic  of  five  feet  called  ?  Of  six  feet  ?  Ei-plain 
common  metre,  long  metre,  and  short  metre  ? 


LESSON    SIXTY-SEVENTH.  181 

3.  Tivcliaic  of  three  feet : — 

Go  where  |  glorj  |  waits  th6e. 
But  when  fame  elates  thee. 

4.  Trochaic  of  four  feet : — 

Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dif-  |  fusing, 
Love  of  peace  and  lonely  musing. 

5 .  Trochaic  of  five  feet : — 

All  that  I  walk  on  |  foot  5r  |  ride  in  |  chariots, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6 .  Trochaic  of  six  feet : — 

On  a  I  mountain  |  stretched,  be-  |  neath  a  hoary  |  wlll5w, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

In  trochaic  verse,  the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  odd 
syllables ;  in  iambic,  on  the  even. 

Trochaic  verse  may  take  an  additional  long  sylla- 
ble ;  as, 

Idle  I  after  |  dinner,  |  in  his  |  chair 
Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 

ANAP^STIC   VERSE. 

1 .  Anapcesti^  of  one  foot : — 

But  in  vain 
They  complain. 

2.  Anapcestic  of  two  feet : — 

Whgre  the  stin  |  15ve8  t5  pause 
With  so  fond  a  delay. 

3 .  Anapaestic  of  three  feet : — 

Fr5m  thg  cen-  |  tre,  all  round  |  t5  th8  sSa 
I'm  lord  jf  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 

4.  Anapaestic  of  four  feet : — 

At  the  close  |  5f  the  day,  |  when  the  ham-  |  ISt  is  etill, 
And  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove. 

Where  is  the  accent  placed  in  tro<3haic  verse  ? 

_ 


182  Greene's  introduction. 


In  anapaestic  verse,  the  accent  falls  on  every  third 
syllable.  The  first  fooi  of  an  anapaestic  verse  may 
be  an  iambus ;  as, 

And  mSr-  |  tals  thS  swgets  |  5f  f^rggt-  |  ftilngss  pr5ve. 

DACTYLIC   YERSS. 

1 .  Dactylic  of  one  foot : — 

Cheerftllly, 
Fearfully. 

2.  Dactylic  of  two  fed : — 

Free  fr5m  Snx-  |  VS\f, 
Care  and  satiety. 

3.  Dactylic  of  three  feet : — 

Wearing  S-  |  way  In  his  |  yoflthflilngss, 
LoYeliness,  beauty,  and  truthfulness. 

4.  Dactylic  of  four  feet: — 

BSys  will  fin- 1  ticlpfite,  ]  lavish,  find  |  disstpfite 
All  that  your  busy  pate  hoarded  with  care. 

Few  poems  are  perfectly  regular  in  their  feet.  The 
different  kinds  of  feet  are  often  mingled  in*  the  same 
verse.     Thus :  — 

I  come,  I  I  come ;  |  y5  hfive  called  |  mg  long ; 

I  come  I  Q'er  th6  moun-  |  tains  with  light  |  find  s5ng. 

Note. — For  exercises  in  scanning,  let  the  pupil  apply  these 
mlo8  to  different  verses  in  his  reading  lessons. 


Where  does  the  accent  fall  in  anapsestio  verse  T 


LESSON    SIXTY-EIGHTH,  183 


PUNCTUATION. 


LESSON   LXVIII. 

I'UNCTUATION  IS  the  art  of  dividing  written  compo- 
sition by  means  of  points. 

The  principal  points  are  the  comma  { , ),  the  semi- 
colon (  ; ),  the  colon  ( :  ),  the  dash  ( — ),  the  parenthesis 
(  ),  the  period  (  .  ),  the  interrogation  point  (  ?  ),  the  j ' 
exclamation  point  (  ! ). 

Rem. — The  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  dash,  and  parenthesis, 
are  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  sentence  ;  the  period,  inter- 
rogation point,  and  exclamation  point,  are  used  to  neparate 
entire  sentences. 

THE  COMMA. 
The  comma  is  used  to  denote  the  shortest  pause,  and  com- 
monly separates  the  elements  of  a  simple  or  complex  sentence. 
It  should  always  be  used  where  the  position  of  the  words  may 
lead  to  a  wrong  connection  or  dependence  of  the  parts,  and 
consequently  to  a  misapprehension  of  the  author's  meaning. 

Rule  I.  —  When  the  elements  of  a  sentence  are 
simple^  and  are  arranged  in  the  natural  order,  they 
should  not*  be  separated ;  but  when  any  element  is 
transposed,  loosely  connected,  or  used  parenthetically, 
it  should  generally  be  pointed  off. 


li: 


What  is  punctuation  ?    Give  the  Remark.     Give  Rule  I. 


184  Greene's  introduction. 


Examples. 

The  path  of  virtue  is  the  path  of  peace. 

Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you. 

To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  to  blame. 

The  ship  leaps,  as  it  were,  from  billow  to  billow. 

Note.  —  This  rule  includes  al!  auch  expressions  as  again, 
beside,  in  short,  in  vain,  in  brief,  the  nominative  case  indepen- 
dent, and  several  of  the  interjections. 

Exercise. 

1.  Punctuate  the  following  examples  : — 

Go  where  a  man  may  home  is  the  centre  to  which  the  heart 
turns. 

Here  comes  his  body  mourned  by  Mark  Anthony. 

Nature  through  all  her  works  delights  in  variety. 

He  being  dead  yet  speaketh. 

I  thank  thee  Roderick  for  the  word. 

Accordingly  the  chronicles  of  the  middle  ages  teem  with 
crime. 

His  story  is  in  short  the  tale  of  an  impostor. 

At  the  base  of  the  mountain  we  dismounted  from  our  horses. 
All  nature  is  but  art  unknown  to  thee  ; 
All  chance  direction  which  thou  canst  not  see. 

2.  Punctuate  the  following  examples : — 

Note. —  Here  let  the  teacher  read  examples  from  any  book, 
requiring  the  use  of  the  comma,  and  let  the  pupils  copy  the 
words,  and  insert  the  comma  in  its  proper  place. 

Rule  II. — ^When  an  element  is  complex^  and  con- 
siderably extended,  it  should  be  pointed  off  by  the 
comma. 

Examples. 

We  visited  Abbotsford,  the  home  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
An  indiscriminate  reading  of  novels  and  romances,  is  exceed- 
ingly injurious  to  the  young. 


t. 


LESSON    SIXTY-EiaHTH.  185 

Note. —  •  This  rule  applies  when  elements,  if  simple  and 
arranged  ia  the  natural  order,  would  not  be  pointed.  Thus, 
"  Paul  tlie  Apostle  "  is  not  separated  ;  but  "  Paul,  the  great 
Apostle  to  tJie  gentiles/^  is  separated,  because  the  italicised  ele- 
ment is  complex.  When  such  an  element  is  inverted,  loosely 
connected,  or  used  parenthetically,  it  is  for  a  still  stronger  rea- 
son, pointed  off.  The  rule  applies  particularly  to  the  subject, 
the  noun  in  apposition,  when  modified  by  expressions  consid- 
erably extended. 

Exercise. 

Punctuate  the  following  examples:— 

In  the  contemplation  of  these  august  teachers  of  mankind 
we  are  filled  with  conflicting  emotions. 

That  a  peculiar  state  of  the  mere  particles  of  the  brain  should 
be  followed  by  a  change  of  the  state  of  the  sentient  mind  is 
truly  wonderful. 

The  ancients  separated  the  corn  from  the  ear  by  causing  an 
ox  to  trample  on  the  sheaves. 

General  Washington  the  first  President  of  the  United  States 
was  a  true  patriot  a  genuine  lover  of  his  country. 

The  more  highly  we  cultivate  our  minds  here  the  better  shall 
we  be  prepared  for  the  nobler  pursuits  of  the  next  stages  of  our 
existence. 

Rule  III.  —  When  an  element  is  compound,  the 
component  parts,  if  they  exceed  two,  are  separated  bj 
a  comma  ;  as,  "  Some  men  sin  frequently/ ,  deliberately , 
and  presumptuously,'' 

Note.  —  This  rule  applies  to  all  coordinate  expressions, 
whether  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.  Two  coordinate  parts  are 
not  separated  by  a  comma,  except  (1)  when  they  denote  an 
alternative  of  words,  and  not  of  ideas  ;  as,  "  The  gulf  or  hay  iji 
dangerous ;"  (2)  when  they  denote  a  contrast;  as  "  Though 
deep,  yet  clear ;  (3)  when  one  or  both  are  complex^  and  con- 


186  Greene's  introduction. 

siderably  extended ;  as,  "  He  left,  and  took  his  brother  with 
him ;"  (4)  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted  ;  as,  "  Thomas  is 
a  plain,  honest  man ;"  (5)  when  the  same  element  is  repeated; 
as,  **  Verily f  verily ,  I  say  unto  you." 

Examples, 

Punctuate  the  following  examples : — 

See  through  this  air  this  ocean  and  this  earth 
All  matter  quick  and  bursting  into  birth. 

Speak  as  you  mean  do  as  you  profess  and  perform  what  you 
promise. 

You  are  a  parent  or  a  child  a  brother  or  a  sister  a  husband 
or  a  wife  a  friend  or  an  associate  of  some  kindred  soul. 

lias  God  provided  for  the  poor  a  coarser  earth  a  thinner  air 
a  paler  sky  ? 

Industry  honesty  and  temperance  are  essential  to  happiness. 

Lend  lend  your  wings. 

Woe  woe  to  the  rider  that  tramples  them  down. 

It  is  a  star  or  some  distant  light. 

The  storms  of  many  winters  and  the  scorching  heats  of  many 
summers  have  visited  that  ruin. 

Contrasted  faults  through  all  their  manners  reign, 
Though  poor  luxurious  ;  though  submissive  vain ; 
Though  grave  yet  trifling ;  zealous  yet  untrue ; 
And  even  in  penance  planning  sins  anew. 

THE    COLON  AND   SEMICOLON. 

The  colon  and  semicolon  are  used  chiefly  to  sepa- 
rate the  memhers  of  a  loose  sentence ;  as,  "  Make  a 
proper  use  of  your  time ;  for  the  loss  of  it  can  never 
be  regained." 


What  is  said  of  the  colon  and  semicolon  ? 


LESSON    SIXTY-EIGHTH.  187 

Rem.  1.  —  The  colon  is  now  but  little  used,  except  before 
examples  following  the  expressions,  as  follows^  the  following 
examples,  in  these  words;  as,  "Perform  the  following  exer- 
cises :'' 

Rem.  2. — When,  in  a  complex  sentence,  several  subordinate 
clauses  are  united  to  each  other,  having  a  common  dependence 
upon  the  principal  clause,  they  are  separated  by  the  semicolon  ; 
as,  "  Philosophers  assert  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  opera- 
tions ;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that 
knowledge  will  always  be  progressive  ;  and  that  future  genera- 
tions will  continue  to  make  discoveries/' 

Exercise. 

Insert  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  and  the  colon 
where  they  are  required  in  the  following  examples : 

Never  value  yourself  upon  your  fortune  for  this  is  the  sign 
of  a  weak  mind. 

Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dry  den  but  Dryden  cer- 
tainly wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope. 

The  great  tendency  and  purpose  of  poetry  is  to  carry  the 
mind  above  and  beyond  the  beaten  dusty  weary  walks  of  ordi 
nary  life  to  lift  it  into  a  purer  element  and  to  breathe  into  it 
more  profound  and  generous  emotion. 

Write  on  your  slate  the  following  example  Mary  and  John 
will  go. 

The  great,  the  wise  and  the  good  were  there. 

Endeavor  to  excel  much  may  be  accomplished  by  perseve- 
rance. 

THE   DASH   AND   PARENTHESIS. 

The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause, 
an  unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a 
sentence  is  left  unfinished ;  as,  "  He  sometimes  coun- 

Give  Remark  I.  Remark  II.  What  is  said  of  the  dash  and 
parenthesis  ? 


188  Greene's  introduction. 

sel   takes  —  and   sometimes   snuff."     "But   I   must 
first ." 

Rem. — The  dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  paren- 
thesis; as,  '*The  coljnists  —  such  is  human  nature  —  desired 
to  burn  the  town  in  which  they  had  been  so  wretched." 

The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sen- 1 
tence  not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but  in  some 
way  explanatory  of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  ;  as, 
"  Consider  (and  ma^  the  consideration  sink  deep  into 
your  hearts)  the  fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life.'* 

Exercise. 

Insert  the  dash  and  the  parenthesis  where  they  are 
required  in  the  following  examples : — 

Horror  burst  the  bands  of  sleep  ;  but  my  feelings  words  are 
too  weak,  too  powerless  to  express  them.  The  Egyptian  stylo 
of  architecture  see  Dr.  Pocock,  not  his  discourses  but  his  prints 
was  apparently  the  mother  of  ♦^he  Greek.  While  they  wished 
to  please,  and  why  should  they  not  wish  it,  they  disdained  dis- 
honorable means.  If  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once  but, 
0,  how  fallen  1  how  degraded  I 

THE   PERIOD. 

The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  declarative  or 
an  imperative  sentence.  It  is  also  used  to  denote  an 
abbreviation. 

Examples. 

Knowledge  is  not  only  pleasant,  but  useful  and  honorable. 
Let  what  you  have  gained  be  an  impulse  to  something  higher. 
If  you  will,  you  can  rise.     The  age  of  MSS.  is,  in  some  in- 
stances, known  by  dates  inserted  in  them. 

What  is  said  of  the  period  ? 


LESSON    SIXTY-EiaHTH.  189 

Exercise. 
Insert  the  period  where  it  is  required  in  the  follow- 
ing examples : — 

Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue 

It  is  the  voice  of  reason  Let  its  precepts  be  religiously 
obeyed     Never  trangress  its  limits     Abhor  a  falsehood 

I  would  say  to  the  people,  You  cannot,  without  guilt  and 
disgrace,  stop  where  you  are 

The  oration  was  delivered  by  J  L  Thompson,  Esq 

The  event  occurred  B  C  1001 

To  R  H  Dana  Jun  Esq  the  well-known  author  of  "  Two 
Years  before  the  Mast,"  the  community  are  greatly  ind^ebted 

But  the  seasons  are  not  alike  in  all  countries  of  the  same 
region,  for  the  reasons  already  given  See  Chap  VI  §  2  f  4 
p330 

INTERROGATION   PeiNT. 

An  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the  close  of  a 
sentence ;  as,  "  Who  comes  there  ?" 

Rem. — When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  used  as  a  subordi- 
nate clause — 

(1.)  The  interrogation  point  is  employed  when  the  clause  is 
quoted  directly  ;  as,  "  He  said.  Why  do  you  weep  ?" 

(2.)  The  interrogation  point  is  not  employed  where  the  clause 
is  quoted  indirectly  ;  as,  "  He  aeked  me  why  I  w^fe'*' 

EXCLAMATION   POINT.  If 

An  exclamation  point  is  used  at  the  close  of  an 
exclamatory  sentence ;  as,  "  How  unsearchable  are 
his  ways  !'* 

Rem. — An  exclamation  point  is  often  used  within  a  sentence, 
after  an  exclamatory  expression  or  an  interjection  ;  as,  "  0, 

How  is  the  interrogation  point  used?  The  exclamation 
point.     What  Remark. 


190  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 

Jove  Supreme  1  whom  men  and  gods  revere  I"     "01  let  soft 
pity  tjuch  the  mindl" 

Exercises. 

Insert  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  where 
they  are  required  in  the  following  examples : — 

Daughter  of  Faith  awake  arise  illume  the  dread  unknown  the 
chaos  of  the  tomb 

Whither  shall  I  turn  "Wretch  that  I  am  To  what  place 
shall  I  betake  myself 

0  Pascal  thou  wert  pure  in  heart  in  this  world,  and  now 
thou  an  in  full  sight  of  God 

Apostles  of  liberty  what  millions  attest  the  authenticity  of 
your  mission 

To  purchase  heaven  has  gold  the  power 

Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ 

Punctuate  correctly  in  all  respects  the  following 
examples : — 

What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  IIow  noble  in  reason  how 
infinite  in  faculties  in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admi- 
rable in  action  how  like  an  angel  in  apprehension  how  like  a 
God 

Dr  II  m^  F  R  S  &c  Bishop  of  Peterborough  b  1757  d 
1839 

As  the^upil  is  often  obliged  to  bend  all  his  faculties  to  the 
task  before  him  and  tears  sometimes  fall  on  the  page  he  is 
studying  so  it  is  in  the  school  of  God's  providence  there  are 
hard  lessons  in  it 

OTHER   MARKS   USED   IN   WRITING. 

Bracl-ets  ([  ])  are  used  when  a  word  or  phrase  is  introduced 
for  explanation  or  connection ;  as,  *'  lie  [the  teacher]  thus 
explained  the  difficulty." 


rr 


LESSON    SIXTY-EIGHTH.  191 


The  Apostrophe  ( ' )  is  used  either  to  denote  the  possessive 
case,  or  the  omission  of  a  letter ;  as,  "  John's."     "  O'er/' 

The  Quotation  Marks  ("  ")  are  used  to  include  a  passage 
taken  verbatim  from  some  other  author ;  as,  "  He  said,  *  I 
relinquish  my  claim.' " 

The  Asterisk  (  *  ),  the  Obelisk  (  f  ),  the  Double  Dagger  (  J  ), 
and  the  Parallels  (  ||  ),  are  used  to  refer  to  notes  in  the  margin, 
or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Sometimes  the  Section  (  J  )  and 
the  Paragraph  (  %  )  are  used.  Also,  small  letters,  or  figures, 
which  refer  to  notes  at  the  foot  of  the  page. 

The  Caret  (  '^ )  is  used  in  vrriting  to  show  that  some  letter, 
word,  or  phrase  has  been  omitted ;  as,  "  The  pencil  lies  °°  the 
table." 

The  Hyphen  ( - )  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound 
word  ;  as,  "  Book-binder."  When  placed  at  the  end  of  a  line, 
it  shows  that  a  word  is  divided,  the  remaining  part  being  car- 
ried to  the  next  line. 

The  Ellipsis  (***)( )  is  used  to  denote  the  omission 

of  certain  letters  or  words ;  as,  "  C  *  *  *  U."     **  K g." 

connects  a  number  of  words  with  one  common 


The  Brace    ,       ^^^^ 


1 

The  Index  (  J|^*  )  points  to  some  remarkablepassage. 
The  Section  (  §  )  also  denotes  the  divisions  ona^Kise. 


ne  remarkable^passag 
e  divisions  ona^Ki 
s^mreWD^Pii^i  d^Bf 


A  Paragraph  ( 1[ )  also  denotes  fwrePD^gii^iiflBf  a  new 
subject. 

The  vowel  marks  are  the  Diceresis  (  •• ),  placed  over  the 
Becond  of  two  vowels  which  are  separated  ;  the  Lcmg  sound 
( -  )*  placed  over  a  long  vowel ;  the  Breve  or  Short  sound  (  ^  ), 
placed  over  a  short  vowel ;  and  accents,  Grave  (  ^  ),  Acute  (  ^  ), 
and  Circumflex  {"  )* 

Rem. — The  best  practical  exercises  on  all  these  marks  and 
points  will  be  g'ven  by  the  teacher.     Let  the  pupil  be  required 


192  GREENE'S    INTRODUCTION. 


to  construct  sentences  involving  the  use  of  them  ;  or  let  the 
teacher  read  from  some  book,  any  passage  which  demands 
their  use,  and  let  the  class  insert  them  in  their  proper  places. 


RULES   FOR   THE   USB   OF   CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

(1.)  The  first  vrord  of  every  entire  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  **  Jesus  weptJ^ 

(2.)  Titles  of  honor  and  respect,  and  every  proper  name,  and 
every  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  name,  should  begin  with 
a  capital ;  as,  His  Highness^  Boston,  Bostonian. 

(3.)  Every  appellation  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  a 
capital ;  as,   God,  Jehovah,  the  Eternal. 

(4.)  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 

(5.)  The  words  "  I  "  and  **  0  *'  should  always  be  capitals. 

(6.)  Any  important  word  may  begin  with  a  capital. 

(7.)  The  principal  words  in  the  titles  of  books  should  begin 
with  capitals  ;  as,  Pope^s  '^Essay  on  ManJ* 

(8.)  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  when  the  quotation 
forms  a  complete  sentence  of  itself,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 


Vf9>^ 


r  \  .^ 


jsJ/ra^'W^^ 


■fM 


^  .\^ 


^ 


jifJi{\fifm^'t 


/  ' 


'^  >" 


C^Jj 


/ 


r  A^ 


^ 


i 


fpt-^i^ 


ffl/lA-i^  f 


COWPERTHWAIT  &  CO., 
BOOKSELLERS    AND    PUBLISHERS, 

Inyite  the  attention  of  the  Public  to  the  following 
VALUABLE  SCHOOL  BOOKS. 

WAEREN'S  SEEIES  OF  GEOGRAPHIES 

THE  PRIMARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

THE  COxMMON.SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY. 

THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

^  lost 

^*  1    -  -  - -  -.-,-..,  and 

where\  tve  been  adopted,  they  have  received 

the- w;i  lations  of  those  who  have  used  or  ex- 
amined ihcui. 


JEEENE'S  SERIES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMARS 


eries  of  school 
,  of  Brown  Vv 


they  aro  in 

6ch '.'-<■•-   -■■  . 


I.  a  lie  a  C'raccs. 


prepr-d  by  Prof. 

■$ix     I'rovidc  .CO,  Rhode 

;r  them  is  the  fact  that 

in  the  higher  order  of 


BERARD'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  TTNITED  STATES, 

This  school  history  is  wnuen  in  a  most  attractive  style  • 
and  tlie  Dromment  events  of  our  country's  history  are  pre^ 
^^r  pleading  a  manner  that  the  book  cannot  fail 

grv.  aierest  and  instruct  the  punil. 


